Adolescent Substance Abuse

Abstract

Adolescence is a stage in which young children are transitioning into adulthood and during this time there are challenges that can be encountered that can impact development. Prior to reaching adulthood substance abuse is an issue that many adolescents are faced with.  The National Institute on Drug Abuse (2014), states that nearly 70 percent of high school students will have consumed alcohol by the time they become seniors, 50 percent will have engaged in the use of illegal drugs, almost 40 percent tried smoking a cigarette on more than one occasion, and a little over 20 percent experimented with prescription drugs for recreational use.  There are many factors that influence adolescent substance abuse and it is a serious problem that can affect cognitive, physical and social development and providing a breakdown of those factors will allow the opportunity to identify successful intervention techniques.

  Substance Abuse

The act of ingesting, inhaling, or injecting something that can be detrimental to the health of an individual, “usually for psychoactive (mood-altering) purposes” (Wulffson, 2015) is known as substance abuse.  Alcohol, tobacco, prescription drugs and medications purchased over-the counter are commonly used products that are legal substances and cocaine, marijuana, hallucinogens, methamphetamine, and heroin are illegal substances.  Substance abuse is a problem that has been increasing amongst our youth and efforts have been made to gain a better understanding on the issue by examining biological and environmental factors that could be contributing factors in adolescents deciding to experiment with substances.  The National Survey on Drug Use and Health performed a study in 2014 stated that approximately 27 million Americans 12 years of age and older was reportedly used illegal substances within one month of the survey being conducted.  Therefore, it is imperative that an explanation on how adolescents develop substance abuse issues is provided.

During the adolescent years, the human brain is experiencing major changes that involve their “emotional/social network outpace development of the cognitive-control network” (Berk, 2014, p. 368) and because of these changes they are more than likely to engage in risky behavior such as substance use.  As the brain is developing during this period there are biological and environmental factors that could increase the chances of adolescents developing substance abuse problems.  Substance abuse and addiction disorders have been linked to biological factors such as genetics.  Research is continuously being performed to determine if substance abuse and addiction disorders can be inherited though genetics and thus far it has been acknowledged that inherited factors do exist, however there has not been any concrete evidence to determine what is inherited.  For example, an adolescent with a family history of drug abuse can “have an increased susceptibility or sensitivity to the effects of drugs with reinforcing properties” (Biological Components of Substance Abuse and Addiction, 1993) and those reinforcing properties are environmental factors.

Factors that Influence Substance Abuse

Environmental factors that influence adolescent substance abuse problems include access to substances, exposure to substance abuse through observing others and socioeconomic status.  Socioeconomic status is an individual’s social status which represents their place in society and is “earned through actions or accomplishments” (Campbell, 2016).  Adolescents that live in an environment of a lower socioeconomic status, meaning that education levels and income are less than average, tend to have more access to illegal substances because there is a high level of the availability of drugs in those types of communities and are exposed to substance abuse though the observation of others.  Communities that are of a lower socioeconomic status often have a high presence of outlets that distribute alcoholic beverages and tobacco sales that increase the exposure to adolescents and “facilitate substance use and initiation and potential abuse” (Mennis, Stahler, & Mason, 2016).  Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory suggest that human behavior is learned through observing others and that is a contributing factor to how adolescents begin to abuse substances in environments that are of a lower socioeconomic status, by simply watching others such as older teenagers and/or adults partake in these behaviors without receiving any consequences. Biological and environmental factors increase risk factors associated with adolescents who develop addictive disorders.

  

Addiction

Addiction is a mental disorder associated with functions of the brain and is related to substance abuse because when an individual reaches a point in which they are doing something and not able to stop then they have developed an addiction (O'Driscoll, 2014).  Adolescents that continuously abuse drugs and alcohol impact their physical, psychological and cognitive development.  Substance abuse can impact physical development because adolescents are most likely not receiving the proper nutrition needed to ensure the proper development.  Psychological development is effected because cognitive functions are impaired because of the effects that alcohol and drugs have on the human brain.  Substance abuse alters human behavior which affects psychological development because adolescents are engaging in risky behavior that could be detrimental to the health of themselves and others. 

Developmental Theories

Erik Erickson developed a theory on eight stages of human development that can provide some insight on adolescent’s engaging in substance abuse.  The adolescent stage is identity vs. role confusion and is focused on fidelity.  (Gould, 2015) states that during this stage individuals are focused on what they do and often struggle with finding their own identity, peer relations and determining their place in society.  The identity vs. identity confusion stage can influence substance abuse because adolescents are trying to fit in societal norms that often involve drugs and alcohol.  Adolescents that partake in drug and alcohol abuse to fit in often can develop an addiction because of the feelings that are experienced when under the influence.

Intervention

Intervention can be identified as a method used to “produce an effect or to interrupt or stop the progression of a disease” (Frey, 2015) such as substance abuse and addiction.  In efforts community should join forces to develop intervention techniques.  Early detection of possible drug and alcohol abuse is the most effective because adolescents can be referred to treatment programs to help combat those issues.  A change of environment has always been the most recommended solution; however, it is not always the most feasible decision, therefore community efforts should be made to deter adolescents from partaking in the use of drugs and alcohol. Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) is a proactive intervention technique that was designed to teach students about making decisions that will help them lead a safe and healthy life that is free from risky behaviors that involve substance abuse. 

Conclusion

Substance abuse is a serious problem in society and providing an explanation on how adolescents develop substance problems can help with developing intervention techniques that can assist with reducing the risk of the urge to experiment with alcohol and drugs.  There are several biological and environmental factors that contribute to adolescents developing addictive disorders and developmental theories have provided information on the different stages and how they relate to how substance abuse is dealt with.  Developing intervention techniques is the most appropriate and effective method that can be used to reduce the risk of adolescent experimenting with drug and alcohol abuse and it is important for everyone to be a part of the efforts.

  References

Berk, L. E. (2014). Development Through the Lifespan (Vol. Sixth Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.

Biological Components of Substance Abuse and Addiction. (1993). Retrieved from Princeton.edu: www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1993/9311/931103.PDF

Campbell, J. (2016). Social status. Salem Press Encyclopedia.

Frey, R. P. (2015). Intervention. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health.

Gould, M. A. (2015). Erikson's Eight Stages of Development. Research Starters: Sociology (Online Edition).

Mennis, J., Stahler, G. J., & Mason, M. J. (2016). Risky Substance Use Environments and Addiction: A New Frontier for Environmental Justice Research. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(6). doi:10.3390/ijerph13060607

NIDA. (2014). Retrieved from Principles of Adolescent Substance Use Disorder Treatment: A Research-Based Guide: www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-adolescent-substance-use-disorder-treatment-research-based-guide

O'Driscoll, C. (2014). Addiction: A Guide to Understanding Its Nature and Essence. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Wulffson, R. M. (2015). Substance abuse. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health.

The Strange Situation Review

The Strange Situation

The attachment theory provides an explanation on the importance of how bonding and attachment is to personal development in infancy and childhood. The emotional tie between a mother and infant is known as bonding and often occurs shortly after birth. Attachment is a relationship that develops during infancy and John Bowlby a British psychiatrist believes that there are four phases in the development of attachment.  In phase 1, newborns are still in the bonding face, therefore attachment has not begun.  In phase 2, which occurs around two months, infants demonstrate the ability to recognize the difference between caregivers, however attachment has not yet developed.  In phase 3 is when attachment begins around seven months and “infants clearly discriminate the caregiver from other people and begin to show preferential treatment toward the caregiver” (Rieser-Danner & Slaughter, 2016).  Phase 4 is when infants secure the bond with caregivers and attachment becomes relevant to their relationship. This paper will provide a review of a study conducted by psychologist Mary Ainsworth in which she explored different aspects of mother and infant attachments.

Experiment Details

The Strange Situation was an assessment that was conducted by Psychologist Mary Ainsworth as a method to investigate “how attachment might vary between children” (McLeod, 2008).  There were 56 infants that were participants from middle class white families and they were divided into subsamples, one included 23 infants, “who had been observed longitudinally from birth onward, were observed in the strange situation when 51 weeks old” (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970) and the other included 33 infants who were observed at 49 weeks of age.  The observation was conducted in a room that was intended to “be novel enough to elicit exploratory behavior, and yet not so strange that it would evoke fear and heighten attachment behavior at the outset” (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).  The room was furnished but it was arranged in a way that a significant amount of empty space was left open.  There was a chair for the child and toys were present on one side and a chair for the mother and opposite that chair was a chair for a stranger on the other side.  The experiment begun with the infant being placed in the area that was purposely left empty and was “left free to move where he wished” (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).  There was a total of eight different scenarios used to initiate, measure and record behaviors that occurred.  The scenarios involved mother-infant and the observer; mother-infant; mother-infant and stranger; mother departs leaving infant alone with stranger; mother departs leaving infant alone; stranger comes back while infant is alone; mother comes back while infant was with stranger and stranger leaves.  The results of those scenarios were recorded to demonstrate the difference in the behavior of the infants as it relates to attachment.

The behaviors that were described during the research were categorized in four different ways, proximity and contact-seeking behaviors; contact-maintaining behaviors; proximity and interaction-avoiding behaviors; contact and interaction-resisting behaviors.  Proximity and contact-seeking behaviors involved the infant actively attempting to make contact gestures such as reaching, approaching or crying.  Contact-maintaining behaviors occurred once the infant made contact, they made every effort to maintain that contact through “resisting release by intensified clinging on” (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).  Proximity and interaction behaviors occurred when someone other than the caretaker attempted to interact with the infant and the infant purposely ignored that adult by looking away and then moving away. Contact and interaction-resisting behavior occurred with the infant resisting contact from someone other than the caregiver and throws temper tantrums trying to get away from the unfamiliar person. 

Main Points

The research determined that “patterns of attachment is believed to be the result of the history of interaction between the caregiver and infant” (Rieser-Danner & Slaughter, 2016), therefore it does not occur by chance but rather it is based on the circumstances.  If the infant is exposed to an unfamiliar environment they may experience fear and that will result in attachment intensifying and those feelings can only be resolved with reuniting the infant with their caretaker. The findings from the research suggest that levels of attachment are based on individual differences that is dependent upon the relationship developed between a mother and her child.  If a mother is consistently responsive to the needs of their child in a sensitive manner a secure attachment will develop and mothers that are less sensitive when responding to the needs of their child are more than likely to develop an insecure attachment.

Examining the main points that were presented in the research study and reflecting on my own personal experience, I would have to say that I agree with the conclusion to the experiment.  I believe that children whom are accustomed to always being with their mother will experience heightened levels of anxiety if someone must care for them not in the presence of their mother and/or father.  I can support this claim through personal experience with my now 11-year-old daughter who was cared for by her father for the first six months of her life and when it was time for her to go to daycare, she demonstrated contact and interaction behaviors for the first week of being in the care of someone else.  When an infant or young child’s normal routine is altered and they are exposed to a different environment and unfamiliar people are present I believe they develop a sense of fear and may struggle to adapt to that environment. 

 Intervention

German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson developed a psychosocial theory that focused on infant/toddler development in relation to the parent-infant relationship.  Erikson’s theory state that “a healthy outcome during infancy depends on the quality of care giving; relieving discomfort promptly and sensitively and holding the infant gently” (Berk, 2014, p. 184), therefore developing a level of trust can ensure a healthy attachment.  Many parents have reservations about having others care for their children at such a young age and opt out of childcare arrangements, however I personally believe that the best way for infants and toddlers to develop levels of trust outside of their parents is to be in different environments.  When infants and toddlers are exposed to environments that promote healthy interactions amongst each other healthy attachments can develop making it easier on the parents to separate from their children for short periods of time.  Having a complete understanding of developmental milestones is also important to intervention because that allows caretakers to make informed decisions regarding the level of care the child should be receiving.  Understanding child development ensures that caretakers are implementing age-appropriate interactions and activities with children that will not increase levels of anxiety due to frustration and fear of the unknown.

Conclusion

Several experiments have been conducted to measure mother-infant attachments and The Strange Situation was a specific experiment that caught a lot of attention.  The experiment was conducted in a laboratory setting instead of the home environment because researchers believed that was the only way to produce valid results.  The goal was to identify different levels of attachment by exposing the infant to different conditions involving the caretaker and strangers. The results concluded that there were high levels of attachment in the infants when left in the presence of strangers without the mother being present, therefore supporting the attachment theory claim on the importance of bonding and attachment is to personal development.  The review of the strange situation was designed to summarize the experiment, discuss the main points that were made by the researchers and provide an opinion on whether I agreed or disagreed with the viewpoints.  Finally, the review discussed specific techniques that are applicable to ensuring infants and toddlers develop healthy attachments with caregivers.

References

Ainsworth, M. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-old in a strange situation. Child Development, 41(1), 49-67.

Berk, L. E. (2014). Development Through the Lifespan (Vol. Sixth Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.

McLeod, S. (2008). Strange Situation. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/mary-ainsworth.html

Rieser-Danner, L. A., & Slaughter, V. (2016). Attachment and bonding in infancy and childhood. Salem Press Encyclopedia Of Health.

PF Model Psychological Assessment

Psychological Assessment

Psychological assessments are designed to measure “individual differences in behaviors, and applying this knowledge to a single person for his and society’s interest” (Laak, Desai, & Gokhale, 2013) and must demonstrate reliability and validity.  Determining the validity of an assessment has been accomplished through implementing the correlation method which involves examining the relationship between results and criterion, however Bornstein published an article that provided an explanation on how using the process-focused model is more effective when providing evidence of validity. Selecting an appropriate method for determining the validity of an assessment that identifies problem behaviors in school-aged children is important to ensuring the accuracy of the measurement so that the proper treatment methods and interventions are implemented.  Even though human behavior is constantly changing, and often the results of an assessment may not be accurate of one’s true behavior, The Clinical Assessment of Behavior has been rated as a valid measurement tool because the reliability coefficients range from .77 to .95 and .88 or higher across the three forms on the scale and cluster internal consistency. This paper will provide information supporting the validity of The Clinical Assessment of Behavior by comparing the process-focus model and the traditional model to determine which method is most applicable of assessing the validity.  

The Clinical Assessment of Behavior

A psychological assessment that is intended to “assist in the identification of children and adolescents across a wide range who need behavioral, educational, or psychiatric treatment or intervention” (Clinical Assessment of Behavior, 2004).  The Clinical Assessment of Behavior measures behaviors on a clinical scale and adaptive scale.  The clinical scale measures internalized behaviors that relate to feelings that children may have towards themselves, such as depression, anxiety and somatization.  Externalized behaviors are also measured on the clinical scale and include problem behaviors that are directed towards others such as anger, aggression and bullying.  Behaviors that are associated with Sociopathy and Psychopathology are also measured on the clinical scale.  The adaptive scale measures social skills related to how children interact with peers and adults as well as competence and adaptive behaviors.  Competence refers to cognitive and language development and adaptive behaviors involve social responsibility and independent performance of daily activities.  The Clinical Assessment of Behavior has three forms, parent rating form, teacher rating form an extended rating form and takes nearly 15 minutes to complete and 30 minutes for the extended rating form.  The assessment includes 70 questions that must be answered according to the five-point rating scale that range from always or very frequently to never and is completed by parents, caretakers and/or teachers based upon the behaviors that were directly observed.  Once the forms are completed the data will be entered in The Clinical Assessment of Behavior scoring program to generate results.  This process is designed to validate the assessment of children’s behavior by assessing the knowledge that participants have on human behavior which is why Bornstein believe that a substantial amount of time and effort has been dedicated by researchers to “maximize test score validity by ensuring assessment tools measure what we think they do” (Bornstein, 2011). 

Traditional Models of Validity

Content, criterion-referenced and construct validity are traditional models of validity that are utilized to conceptualized assessment validity.  Content validity provide evidence that is based on the content of the assessment and involves a reasonable examination and evaluation of the test content.  To ensure content validity for The Clinical Assessment of Behavior, (Miller, 2016) states that researchers must examine the format of the test, questions and wording to verify that the content represents the concepts related to identifying problem behaviors in children and adolescents and evaluating adaptive skills “without underrepresenting those concepts or including elements that are irrelevant to their measurement”.  Criterion-referenced validity refers to correlational relationships between variables and involves comparing test scores of The Clinical Assessment of Behavior “with other measures to determine whether those scores are related to other measures to which we would expect them to relate” (Miller, 2016, p. 185).  Construct validity provides evidence that the test is measuring what it claims to measure.  (Miller, 2016) defines constructs as “attributes, traits, or characteristics that are not directly observable and can only be inferred by examining observable behaviors”.  The content of The Clinical Assessment of Behavior is an important component to construct validity because it demonstrates that the assessment provides “a balanced theoretical framework of both competence-based qualities and problem-based concerns that is useful for evaluating adaptive strengths and clinical risks in children and adolescents” (Clinical Assessment of Behavior, 2004).  While traditional models of validity are commonly used, the validity coefficient indicates strengths and weaknesses of measured variables and Bornstein (2011) believes that improvements can be made to the process by adapting the process-focus model that will allow the validity of assessments to be examined in a different context.

Process-Focused Model of Validity

The Process-Focused model of validity is another method of providing evidence of validity on assessments that measure psychological constructs by applying an experimental method to manipulate variables.  Manipulating variables in the process-focused model allow researchers the opportunity to examine other factors involving psychological processes and how they influence test scores.  Borstein describes the process-focused model as an “outcome-based validity assessment with a process-driven approach” (Bornstein, 2011) that is designed to improve the assessment procedure.  Examining other factors involve psychological processes links psychological disciplines in the process-focused model and Borstein designed a four-step model to demonstrate how manipulating variables incorporates ideas from different psychology subfields.

Borstein’s (2011) four-step model.

Borstein has provided an outline on a procedure that is applicable to assessing the validity of any psychological construct. The Clinical Assessment of Behavior focuses on defining the measurement of psychological constructs that are not directly observable using the process-focused approach.  Psychological constructs such as internalized behaviors, externalized behaviors and critical behaviors can be measured using the four-step model designed by Borstein.

Step 1. Deconstruct assessment instrument has two separate components, the first component involves specifying underlying processes in the behavior of school-aged children that should occur when children respond to motivational techniques that occur during observation for testing purposes and then identifying circumstances that can alter their behavior.    

Step 2. Operationalize and evaluate process-outcome links has three components that can be used in the assessment of a psychological construct such as human behavior.  Bornstein (2011) identified those components as “turning process-altering variables into manipulations, delineating hypothesized outcomes, and experimental design”.  This step involves developing hypotheses on the behavior of young children and adolescents relating to the school environment that will require performing a research experiment. 

Step 3. Interpreting the outcome involves evaluating the results of the assessment and interpreting the data collected on the behavior of young children and adolescents in relation to limiting conditions that can alter the assessment process.  The test-retest method is applicable in this step because it will identify behavioral changes that were caused by limiting factors.

Step 4. Evaluate generalizability and ecological validity is the final step in assessing the validity of psychological constructs in the process-focused model and involves putting the data collected on the behavior of young children and adolescent into context.  Inconsistencies in the research design is a limiting condition that can influence the assessment process which is why the test-retest method is important to the process.  The Clinical Assessment of Behavior includes three forms that are completed in different context, therefore assessing the behavior of young children and adolescents can occur through validating the data across the three forms. 

With these steps in mind, a comparison of the Traditional and Process-Focused Models is necessary to determine which method is best suited for The Clinical Assessment of Behavior because of Borstein’s belief on using “experimental manipulations to alter respondents’ psychological processes during testing” (Bornstein, 2011, p. 5), examining the similarities and differences will provide clarity.

Comparison of the Traditional and Process-Focused Models

                                    Differences

Bornstein (2011) article on the process-focused model explains how this method differs from the traditional method by outlining key points to the process that determines validity as it relates to the outcome.  The traditional method limits the variables associated with the assessment and the test score through correlational methods that are designed to “quantify the relationship between test scores and criterion” (Bornstein, 2011, p. 1).  On the contrary, process-focused model theorizes the idea of validity is based on the point in which participants can demonstrate their participation in an anticipated set of psychological processes during the assessment.  Experimental procedures are applied that are designed to manipulate variables that balance the connection between criterion and test scores in the process-focused model. 

            Similarities.

After carefully examining the information pertaining to the traditional method and the process-focused method the only similarity that was obvious was the goal to provide evidence of validity through different processes.  The traditional and process-focused model both examine and evaluate data, however these functions are performed differently.  Each model is designed to provide evidence that will prove the data collected from an assessment measuring psychological constructs is an accurate measure.

            Bornstein’s Claims.

 Bornstein promotes the use of the process-focused model because he believes that it enhances the goals of providing evidence of validity by switching the direction of the relationship between test scores and conducting experiments.  Borstein (2011) believes that validating test scores can only be achieved by conducting experimental procedures as part of the method that requires changing the direction of the relationship between test scores and experiments from unidirectional to bidirectional.  This will allow variables to be manipulated and that can form a connection between psychological testing to other areas in psychology.  

Summary

Psychological assessments are used in a variety of settings to measure constructs that cannot be directly observed, therefore validity is important to the process to ensure the accuracy of results.  The Clinical Assessment of Behavior is an assessment that is used in a school setting to identify problem behaviors in young children and adolescents and contains three forms that are completed by parents/caretakers and teachers to determine what if any additional services are needed to assist the child in the classroom environment.  Evidence of validity for this assessment can be demonstrated through the traditional method or the process-focused method, however Borstein believes that researchers should shift towards the process-focused method because it improves psychological processes and enhances the knowledge of the researchers and participants.  A four-step model was developed by Borstein to support his theory on the importance of moving in the direction of utilizing the process-focused model and is included as part of the discussion.  Borstein provides substantial information to support his claims by providing the main differences between the two models that were outlined to show how providing evidence of validity is evolving.

References

Bornstein, R. F. (2011). Toward a Process-Focused Model of Test Score Validity: Improving Psychological Assessment in Science and Practice. Psychological Assessment, 23(2), pp. 532-544.

Clinical Assessment of Behavior. (2004). Retrieved from Buros Center For Testing: http://www4.parinc.com

Laak, J. T., Desai, D., & Gokhale, M. (2013). Understanding Psychological Assessment: A Primer on the Global Assessment of the Client's Behavior in Educational and Organizational Setting. New Delhi: Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.

Miller, L. A. (2016). Foundations of Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach. Thousands Oaks, California: Sage. Retrieved from ://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483369273

Critical Thinking in Psychology

Autism can be defined as “a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairment in emotional expression and recognition, difficulty with social relationships, delayed and/or abnormal language and communication, and preoccupation with repetitive, stereotyped behaviors or interests” (Slaughter, 2016).  The exact cause of autism is not known; however extensive research has determined that it is “caused by an abnormality in the development of the brain” (Autism, 2016) and has nothing to do with parental and/or environmental influences which is why early intervention is necessary.  Early detection of autism allows medical providers to establish intervention techniques to improve communication abilities and social skills which is why research was conducted to study the age of recognition of symptoms and their correlates in children that were diagnosed.  My current position as a Behavior Technician working with young children diagnosed with autism prompted the selection of this topic so a better understanding can be established on the importance of early intervention.

Summary of the Article

Literature Review

            The peer-reviewed article that I selected was featured in The Journal of Indian Association for Child & Adolescent Mental Health in which a study was conducted using records retrieved from a health care center located in India “to find the age of recognition (AOR) of symptoms by parent and delay in diagnosis and seeking professional help in children with autism” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 1).  The purpose of the study was to provide evidence that supports the belief that early detection and intervention of autism “can significantly improve the social and communication abilities in children” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 1).  The focus of the research was to demonstrate the need for “more awareness about ASD to be spread among general population; the need for proper training amongst health care professionals for diagnosis ASD and adequate referral mechanism; and, monitoring the development of child should be mainstreamed into primary health care services for early diagnosis and intervention” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016).

Methods Section

            The first step to conducting the study was submitting a proposal to the Investigation Review Board detailing the purpose of the research.  Once the proposal was approved researchers collected data from case records located in several different locations in India, one being the Child Guidance Clinic of Department of Psychiatry.  Researchers selected case records from fifty children diagnosed with autism between 2007-2013 and excluded the case records of “children with intellectual disability with autistic features as primary diagnosis” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 1).  The study was conducted over a three-month period in which information was retrieved from case records pertaining to the age autism was detected, symptoms, pregnancy complications, birth and developmental history.  After the information from the case records was compiled together it had to be measured and researchers used “non-parametric test such as Kruskal-Wallis test, and multiple regression analysis was applied using SPSS 16.0” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 296).

Results Section

            The data collected during the study identified fifty patients that were diagnosed with Autism in which “82% were male and 18% were female which corresponds to the male: female ratio of nearly 4:1 as stated by study done by Indring et al which was a record-linkage study done in Sweden” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 296).  Early detection was a key factor to the study which is why age of recognition was taken from each record and that information determined that parents normally recognize symptoms of autism around three years and six months and the average age of diagnosis was six years and six months. Researchers examined each record for pregnancy related complications to determine if there was a relation between those complications and autism and of those records only 36% identified pregnancy related complications such as “hypoxia, meconium stained liquor, torsion of the neck and delayed labor” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 298).  Prior abortions, intellectual disability, family history of mental illness and medical complications were other categories that data was collected.  A decrease in social interactions was the most common symptom that was noticed by parents first and the study retrieved that information from 32% of the cases.  Delayed speech was the most common symptom noticed by parents in a previous study, however only 26% of the cases noted that as the first noticeable symptom.  The information retrieved was categorized by symptoms that were present in women that displayed pregnancy related complications and concluded that there is no solid evidence that “pregnancy related complications, medical complications, intellectual disability and behavioral problems during childhood are independent risk factors for autism” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 303) and that further research is needed to make a final determination.

Discussion Section

            The data collected examined children that were diagnosed with autism and the information in each case was separated into categories to generate statistical information that was used to determine the relation between the age of recognition and symptoms as they relate to pregnancy complications. Information pertaining to pregnancy complications, medical complications and family history of mental illness was retrieved from the records to establish risk factors, however the data collected did not establish if those risk factors were independent variables or not.  The data collected also included symptoms and when they were first noticed by parents to support the main reason for the study which was the importance of early detection in relation to intervention.

Conclusion Section

            The age of recognition in symptoms in children diagnosed with autism was studied in detailed to provide information that can support claims on the importance of spreading awareness.  The exact cause of autism has yet to be determined, however many studies have been conducted to determine possible risk factors to increase awareness in pregnant women that may be subjected to these factors such as pregnancy related complications.  Pregnancy related complications resulted in early detection of autism which made early intervention possible, however in cases where pregnancy related complications were not a factor, detection of autism was detected a later age.

Analysis of the Article

Strengths

            The purpose of the study was to demonstrate the need to increase awareness on autism in communities in India so parents, particularly women of child bearing age would understand the risk factors and receive adequate care during pregnancy and follow-up care and evaluations after the child is born and the article detailed supporting facts of this claim.  Age of recognition was the main supporting fact in which the article showed the importance of prenatal care as it relates to pregnancy related complications and symptoms of autism.  Researchers used information from the records obtained from the clinic as supporting evidence by creating groups based on symptoms and when they were noticed in which pregnancy related complications were present and not present. This information allowed the researchers to further their discussion on why increased awareness and education on autism is important.

Weaknesses

            The study was conducted using only fifty records of individuals diagnosed with autism and although the article demonstrated the necessity of increased awareness, fifty cases only laid the groundwork and established evidence that supports the claim. 

Reflections

Supported Opinions

            Pregnancy related complications have been directly related to many birth defects, however autism is partially excluded from that claim and I personally believe that because autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder it is possible that pregnancy related complications can be a contributing factor.  Prenatal care is extremely important during pregnancy because it allows health care providers to monitor the pregnancy for any problems that may arise.  Health-related problems during pregnancy can affect the fetus which can result in birth defects.  Pregnancy related complications often results in the birth of a child through C-section instead of vaginally and several studies have been conducted to determine the relation between the two.  There was a study conducted in which research demonstrated that “neonates delivered by C-section with general anesthesia were associated with a higher incidence of autism than neonates delivered vaginally or those delivered by C-section with regional anesthesia” (Chien, Lin, Shao, Chiou, & Chiou, 2015).

 Standards Check

The information provided in the article was retrieved from case records of children diagnosed with autism therefore accuracy was determined.  The information was relevant to the study because the research was to determine the importance of early recognition and the age of recognition and age of diagnosis was retrieved from the case records.  There was great depth in the information provided because the study not only focused on the age of recognition and diagnosis, but also symptoms related to autism and how they correlate with pregnancy related complications.

Conclusion

When I first began my position as a Behavior Technician I was paired with young children diagnosed with autism in a pre-school setting and it was unclear to me as to why behavior modification was so important at this early stage, however current studies are providing me with the opportunity to enhance my knowledge on the disorder as I gain clarity on the importance of early intervention.  The article demonstrated the importance of early detection, recording background information, symptoms and family history as key factors to the claim of the importance of increased awareness in the communities. Research studies are continuously being conducted on autism and the information obtained from this article is the beginning of research efforts that will better assist the development of behavior modification skills for children with autism.

References

Autism. (2016). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.

Bagal, R., Kadam, K., & Parkar, S. (2016). To study the age of recognition of symptoms and their correlates in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders: A retrospective study. Journal Of indian Association For Child & Adolescent Mental health, 12(4), 291-308.

Chien, L., Lin, H., Shao, Y., Chiou, S., & Chiou, H. (2015). Risk of Autism Associated with General Anesthesia During Cesarean Delivery: A Population-Based Birth-Cohort Analysis. Journal Of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 45(4), 932-942. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2247-y

Slaughter, V. P. (2016). Autism. Magill's Medical Guide (Online Edition).

Drug Free Workplace

Instituting a drug-free workplace along with mandatory drug testing for new hires can be costly for the business, however drug use and abuse can also be costly as well due to absenteeism, accidents, downtime, turnover, theft, morale, and loss productivity.  According to the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, Inc.  “Drug Abuse has an estimated cost of $81 billion annually” and implementing a drug-free workplace can help cut down on that cost.  Absenteeism is considered one of the major problems associated with drug abuse at the workplace because it has a direct effect on productivity and “it also compromises employee safety because workers who lack familiarity with procedures and work environments and who substitute for absent employees, put themselves at greater risk for accidents than workers who are not absent (Goodman & Garber, 1988)” as quoted in (McFarlin, 2001).  Accidents are more likely to occur when employees’ abuse drugs because of the effects that drugs have on the human brain individuals that are under the influence will have difficulties concentrating on their job that can result in mistakes that can be detrimental.  Drug abuse can “kill and/or damage brain cells” ("Drugs change your brain," 2003) making it very difficult for an individuals to function normally at the workplace which could directly impact productivity because they are having difficulties understanding the functions of the job which can result in increased downtime because individuals will try their best to avoid actually doing the work.  The turnover rate increases because many people that abuse drugs have a difficult time maintaining employment because they are more focused on their addiction so if employers require mandatory drug testing that it is possible to cut down on the turnover rate along with absenteeism and productivity.  Theft is a major problem in all organizations for many different reasons, however it can be more of a problem with drug abusers because they may not have the funds to feed their addiction so they will steal from their employer.  The morale of the company “refers to employees’ shared attitudes toward identification with the elements of their job, working conditions, fellow workers, supervisors, and general management” (Crossley, 2007) and if drug abuse is present in the workplace it could bring down the morale of the company due to conflict that could arise amongst employees. The morale of the company is extremely important because it provides employees with a source of encouragement, therefore instituting mandatory drug-testing can help boost the morale by showing the employees that the company is concerned about their well-being.

References

Crossley, C. (2007). Morale. Encyclopedia of industrial organizational psychology. doi:10.4135/9781412952651.n187

Drugs change your brain. (2003). Scholastic Scope. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212896098?accountid=35812

French, M. T., Zarkin, G. A., & Dunlap, L. J. (1998). Illicit drug use, absenteeism, and earnings at six U.S. worksites. Contemporary Economic. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/274198853?accountid=35812

McFarlin, S. K. (2001). The relationship between workplace absenteeism and alcohol use: A day-to-day examination. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304736633?accountid=35812

Past and Current Trends

Drug abuse is “ the harmful or risky use of legal or illegal drugs or the use of legal drugs in a manner or amount inconsistent with medical advice” (Bedi & Duff, 2008)  and has become an increasing problem in the United States over the past few decades due to the development of so many different illicit drugs.  This paper will identify past and current trends of the use and abuse of substances in the United States as well as discuss when the use of illicit drugs may be considered culturally appropriate and analyze health and social problems in the United States that occur due to drug abuse and addiction.

Past and Current Trends

The use of illicit drugs such as opium, marijuana and cocaine have been around since the beginning of time and were mostly used for religious and medical purposes and there was no knowledge of the effects these drugs would have on the mind and/or body therefore individuals during the earlier times were unaware that the use of these drugs would become habit-forming.  Morphine is “the active ingredient in opium” (Levinthal, 2012 p.10) and is used as a pain reliever as it was in earlier times, however it has the potential to be addictive like many other drugs.  Cocaine is “extracted from coca leaves and was used as a stimulant and antidepressant” (Levinthal, 2012 p.10) in earlier times, however at some point in time it began being used for recreational purposed and soon became illegal.  Many drugs that were developed in earlier times for medical and religious purposes eventually became known as bad because they became illegal and most people made efforts to not have any association with such drugs like cocaine, heroin and marijuana because of the negative perception.

As time went on there was still a negative perception of many drugs especially once congress created the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) in 1974 which “is the federal focal point for research on drug abuse and addiction” (Costello & Vleck, 2009) and provided a way to keep track of drug use in the United States so that research could be done to try and decrease drug problems to prevent national epidemics.  With the National Institute on Drug Abuse being created it allowed statistics to be developed based on what types of drugs are commonly used and by whom.  According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse “Marijuana is the most widely used illicit substance in this country.  In 2003, 14.6 million people were current users of marijuana” (Costello & Vleck, 2009).  The use of marijuana has become accepted in society unlike other drugs because many people believe that it is created from a natural plant that will not cause any harm to the human mind and/or body, which is not true because all illicit drugs have some type of negative effect on the human mind and body.

When Illicit Drugs May Be Considered Culturally Appropriate

Many illicit drugs were accidentally discovered because doctors were looking for different methods to treat their patients, therefore illicit drugs were considered appropriate for medical purposes in earlier times.  Once practice in which illicit drugs are considered culturally appropriate is shamanism which is “the philosophy and practice of healing in which diagnosis or treatment is based on trance-like states, on the part of either the healer or the patient induced by hallucinogenic drugs” (Levinthal, 2012 p. 9).  Cocaine comes from “the coca plant and is indigenous to the Andes region of South America, and has been used by indigenous cultures in that area for thousands of years for the benefit of increased endurance and medical purposes” (Johnson, 2011). Glaucoma is considered to be the second leading cause of blindness in the United States and research has discovered that marijuana helps “eases the pressure behind the eye, which causes blindness in glaucoma sufferers” (Weale, 1994) therefore debates have been issued in many states on legalizing marijuana for medical purposes. 

Health and Social Problems due to drug abuse

Illicit drugs have the ability to change an individual’s consciousness, mood, senses, and/or thought processes which can ultimately result in drug abuse “from the complex physiological and psychological interactions of the substance” (Schlaefer, 2008).  According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse “researchers have found a connection between the abuse of tobacco, cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy, amphetamines, and steroids and the development of cardiovascular diseases” (Costello & Vleck, 2009).  HIV/ Aids is another health problem associated with drug abuse when individual are using needles to inject drugs because often they are sharing contaminated needles. 

There are several social problems associated with drug abuse such as isolation because many drug abusers tend to separate themselves from everyone.  Violence is also another social problem according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse “at least half of the individuals arrested for major crimes including homicide, theft, and assault were under the influence of illicit drugs around the time of their arrest” (Costello & Vleck, 2009).  Along with violence, sexual abuse, child abuse and driving under the influence are social problems associated with drug abuse that can be detrimental to the health and well-being of individuals.

Conclusion

Drug use has been present since the beginning of time although many of the discoveries were accidental because doctors were trying to develop treatments for their patients or individuals were curious about certain plants as they “observed the unusual behavior of animals that fed on those plants” (Levinthal, 2012 p.9).  As time has went on the discovery of many drugs prompted classification on drugs due to research where it was determined that many drugs are illicit when improperly used which is a form of drug abuse that is an contributing factor of many health and social problems. 

  References 

Bedi, R., & Duff, C. (2008). Drug abuse. Encyclopedia of educational psychology, 280-286. doi:10.4135/9781412963848.n77

Costello, J., & Vleck, E. (2009). National Institute on Drug Abuse. Encyclopedia of substance abuse prevention, treatment, & recovery, 609-611. doi:10.4135/9781412964500.n214

Johnson, M. W. (2011). Cocaine. Encyclopedia of Drug Policy. doi:10.4135/9781412976961

Levinthal, C. F. (2012). Drugs, behavior, and modern society (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Schlaefer, K. (2008). Drug abuse. Encyclopedia of global health, 561-565. doi:10.4135/9781412963855.n381

Weale, S. (1994). Home office bans medicinal cannabis glaucoma sufferer says marijuana saved his sight. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/293452099?accountid=458

Workplace Motivation

Workplace Motivation

The driven force that is responsible for why an individual may perform certain activities is known as motivation which is “generally defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal” (Ran, 2009).  Individual’s get up and go to work every day for many reasons, however financial gain is the main reason for most people, which is extrinsic motivation.  Money is a form of extrinsic motivation for many people to hold certain jobs; however when it comes to the workplace, motivation is extremely important because many organizations rely on high levels of productivity from their employees to increase revenue.  This paper will examine how various motivational strategies affect productivity in the HVAC sales industry by explaining organizational efforts to improve performance, employees’ resistance to increasing productivity and the management’s philosophy of motivation and its practices.  In addition to that this paper will analyze the implications of applying any two motivational theories not currently in practice at this place of business and identify how these theories would affect management and employees.

Workplace motivational theories

While working in the HVAC sales industry I worked with many different people with different personality types that would suggest a need for different types of motivational strategies.  The company that I worked for had a relatively small staff that included inside salespeople, outside salespeople, warehouse workers, and office personnel. With different expectations being set for each department, it would be beneficial for management to apply different motivational strategies to increase not only productivity by the level of morale within the company.

Inside salespeople have the most important job at the company in my opinion because they generate the revenue because they are responsible for handling all transactions that involve the customers in person and over the phone, which can be very stressful if other problems arise in other departments such as the warehouse which is responsible for shipping and receiving merchandise.  There are no motivational strategies currently in place for employees; however I believe that the goal setting theory would be applicable for inside and outside sales personnel.  In order for the company to be successful and maintain their staff they have to bring in a certain amount of revenue and if the goal setting theory of motivation was in place, which is a “theory of motivation that states that specific and challenging goals are claimed to lead to higher performance” ("Goal-setting theory," 2003), management would give sales personnel “a clear sense of purpose and direction that provide something for which to strive and ultimately attain” ("Goal-setting theory," 2003).

The warehouse employees are responsible for shipping and receiving merchandise as well as making sure items are put in the correct location within the warehouse.  If an error occurs within the warehouse it will have an adverse effect on sales.  I can see the goal setting theory being applicable for warehouse personnel, however I think the achievement motivation is more suitable because it is “the need for success or attainment of excellence” (Sisk, 2009) in which making sure that customers receive the correct orders in a timely fashion increases productivity.

Office personnel responsibilities include maintaining customers’ accounts to ensure that addresses, telephone numbers and contact information is accurate and up to date as well as bills are being paid.  In addition to maintaining customer accounts they are also responsible for making sure that the merchandise that we receive is paid for.  The responsibilities of the office personnel can be very stressful at times especially if it can cause a problem within the sales department which is why I believe that the stress and coping motivational theory is applicable. How office personnel handle certain situations that involve customers is known as coping which “refers to the thoughts and behaviors that people use to deal with stressful situations” (Tennen, 2007).

Organizational efforts to improve performance

The success of the company relies completely on employee productivity, specifically in sales and if there are problems in the warehouse or with office personnel with customers’ orders or accounts it will have an adverse effect on sales, therefore it is very important for management to implement plans and strategies to improve performance which can be done in several steps.  The first step is effective communication in which management communicate their expectations and stress the importance of personal accountability to their employees.  Employees should never have to assume what is expected of them it should be communicated to them so there are no misunderstandings.  Employee evaluations is another way to improve performance because it allows management to communicate with employees their strengths and weaknesses within their job performance.  In addition to employee evaluations, employee recognition, such as employee of the month or similar acknowledgments, promotions and bonuses is also a way to improve performance because many people thrive off of being noticed for their hard work.

Employees’ resistance to increase productivity

It is very important to develop organizational efforts to improve performance because when employees performance improve it can result in productivity increasing; however if there are changes that have to occur within the organization many employees may show some resistance because they may not fully understand the advantages of the changes being made, how the changes will affect them and they may also be concerned about achieving the responsibilities set forth due to the changes that are occurring.  The goal-setting theory is the best way to offset employee resistance to increase productivity because employers need to effectively communicate with employees the goals of the company and what is expected from everyone. 

Management’s philosophy of motivation and is practices

Management philosophy is the basis for a positive work environment and effects manager’s methods to motivation.  The interaction between managers and employees affects their behavior which ultimately affects productivity.  When managers promote positivity within the workplace, employees are more than likely to be more productive.  While working in HVAC sales the environment was very hostile and the manager was very negative; however the salaries were very commensurable compared to other companies and it was not contingent on whether or not sales were made, therefore employees were not motivated to increase productivity because there were no incentives to do so. 

Implications of applying motivational theories

Motivational theories at the workplace provide explanations on what motivates individuals to perform certain ways and when applied in specific settings it helps employers understand the commitment level of their employees to the goals of the company which in turn can guide them to developing and implementing motivational strategies to increase productivity.  If motivational theories are not in place at the start of business there could be some implications once employees become accustomed to operations being ran a certain way.  Applying the goal-setting theory in an organization in which goals were never clear could cause high levels of stress on employees because they may feel like they may not be able to satisfy the expectations of the goal.  The implications of applying the achievement motivation theory could be the result of a hostile work environment due to the manager not promoting positivity through communication with employees, therefore making the desire to attain excellence difficult.

How Theories affect management and employees

The goal-setting theory affects management and employees in several different ways.  When management applies the goal-setting theory they are communicating the goals of the company with employees which rely on high levels of productivity.  If there is not a good working relationship between management and the employees, effectively communicating the goals could be a challenge for management and if the goals are not clear the employees may not have a full understanding of the expectations. 

Conclusion

Motivational theories applied at the workplace can have a direct effect on the level of productivity within an organization.  Working in HVAC sales allowed me the opportunity to understand the importance of applying motivational theories at the workplace because they provide assistance with developing organizational efforts to improve performance; however it is a possibility that employees may show some resistance to increase productivity when the communication is not clear between management and employees.  Managers that have a positive viewpoint on motivation and practice effective communication within the organization have a better chance at increasing productivity and boosting the morale of the environment. There are a several implications in applying the goal-setting theory and the achievement motivation theory within an organization that have no motivational theories in position, such as in HVAC sales, which can have an adverse effect on management and employees if effective communication is not present. 

References

Goal-setting theory. (2003). The new Penguin business dictionary. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/penguinbus/goal_setting_theory/0

Ran, B. (2009). Motivation. Encyclopedia of business in today’s world. doi:10.4135/9781412964289.n668

Sisk, D. (2009). Achievement motivation. Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. doi:10.4135/9781412971959.n7

Tennen, H. (2007). Coping. Encyclopedia of social psychology. doi:10.4135/9781412956253.n115