Biological and Humanistic Approaches to Personality

Biological and Humanistic Approaches to Personality

A theory can be defined in the dictionary as “the supposition or system of ideas explaining something” ("Theory," 2012).  The field of psychology has expanded over decades because of various theories that have been developed to give explanations on human behavior.  This paper will discuss theories involving biological and humanistic approaches to personality by using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to discuss the extent to which growth needs influence personality formation as well as provide a description of biological factors that influence the formation of personality.  This paper will also examine the relationship of biological factors to Maslow’s theory of personality and explain the basic aspects of humanistic theory that are incompatible with biological explanations of personality.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow developed a theory known as hierarchy of needs that “explains human behavior in terms of basic requirements for survival and growth” (Schmutte, 2006) and contributes to the formation of personality.  According to this theory the needs are in order of “importance for survival and their power to motivate the individual” (Schmutte, 2006).  Food, water and oxygen represent the lowest level of the need hierarchy and these needs must be fulfilled before other needs can be met.  Needs on higher levels of the hierarchy focus more on the psychological well-being of an individual and they are often influenced by education and experiences in life. As stated earlier, “the basic needs for human survival include food, water, shelter, oxygen, and sleep” (Schmutte, 2006) and are known as the physiological needs on the pyramid and when these needs are not satisfied, individuals are unable to focus on higher needs such as safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization.  According to the pyramid once physiological needs are met safety needs begin to surface which include “a sense of security and predictability in the world” (Schmutte, 2006) and attempts are made by individuals to maintain conditions that allow them to feel safe and avoid danger.  Maslow believed that if an individual was not successful in satisfying safety needs it would lead to “neurotic behavior and other emotional problems” (Schmutte, 2006) that could impact personality formation. The need for love and belonging emerge once physiological and safety needs are satisfied.  Love and belonging needs consist of “longings for an intimate relationship with another person as well as the need to belong to a group and to feel accepted” (Schmutte, 2006). Self-esteem and the esteem of others are included in the esteem needs on the pyramid.  Self-esteem “is the feeling that one is worthwhile, competent, and independent and the esteem of other involves the feeling that other people respect and appreciate the person” (Schmutte, 2006).  Maslow believed that once an individual has fulfilled their basic needs, “concerns about worthiness emerge and the focus becomes not just surviving, but doing well according to meaningful communal standards” (Schmutte, 2006).  At the top of the pyramid are self-actualization needs which are needs “associated with realizing one’s full potential” (Schmutte, 2006). The need for self-actualization occurs when an individual begins to focus on doing what they are meant do in life in relation to “developing his or her talents and abilities to their fullest extent” (Schmutte, 2006). The Hierarchy of need explains how basic human needs motivate human behavior which in turn influences personality development.

Biological factors that influence personality

Biological factors that influence the formation of personality consist of genetic traits that are inherited, endocrine glands, and the nervous system.  Genetic traits that are inherited is known as heredity which is “the biological transmission of genetic characteristics from parent to offspring” ("Heredity," 2009) and is considered a very important factor in the development of personality.  The endocrine glands are “ductless glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream” ("Endocrine glands," 2003) and consist of thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and gonads.  Hormones are “biochemical messengers that affect body states or growth by carrying signals from one group of cells to another” ("Hormones," 2009) which can have a direct effect on personality due to the levels that are being transmitted and how those levels influence behavior.  The nervous system is a “network of specialized tissue that controls actions and reactions of the body and its adjustment to the environment” ("Nervous system," 2013).  Genetic traits influence personality because they are inherited characteristics that shape an individual; however it is possible that some traits can be influenced by the environment which is also an important component of personality formation.

Relationship between biological factors to Maslow’s theory of personality

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is a theory on personality that explains that individual’s will reach their full potential in life by satisfying certain needs in life and that theory relates to biological factors because those components contribute to personality and if there are issues it is possible that an individual could have difficulty with satisfying the needs in the pyramid.  For example, if there is an excessive production of certain hormones it could cause an individual to display certain characteristics that are considered to be unstable and could prevent them from satisfying certain needs.

Humanistic Theory

Humanistic theory “emphasizes subjective experience, conscious free-will, and human aspiration” ("Humanistic theory," 2009).  Humanistic theory conflicts with theories that were presented prior such as psychoanalytic and behaviorist because it “presented an optimistic view of human nature, in which humans are active, creative, and concerned with growth” ("Humanistic theory," 2009).  Humanistic theory is incompatible with biological explanations of personality because it states “that humans think consciously and rationally and can exert control over their biological urges” ("Humanistic theory," 2009) in which sometimes can be impossible for certain individuals especially if they are experiencing chemical imbalances. Another incompatibility between humanistic and biological theory is that humanistic theory states that individuals develop inadequate personality traits through learning experiences which is opposite of the biological theory that states certain traits are inherited.

Conclusion

Biological and humanistic theories have different approaches on the explanation of personality development; however they do share a few similarities.  Abraham Maslow developed a Hierarchy of Needs theory to explain personality development as a part of basic human needs and his pyramid shows how satisfying human needs impact personality formation.  Maslow’s believed that in order for an individual to reach self-actualization, which is the highest level on the pyramid they first had to satisfy basic needs such as physiological and then psychological needs and during these stages the experiences would contribute to personality formation.

References

Endocrine glands. (2003). The Macmillan Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/move/endocrine_glands/0

Heredity. (2009). The penguin dictionary of psychology. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/penguinpsyc/heredity/0

Hormones. (2009). The Sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n1206

Humanistic theory. (2009). The sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n1219

Nervous system. (2013). The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/columency/nervous_system/0

Schmutte, D. L. (2006). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. The Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health, 3(2nd), 1662-1665.

Theory. (2012). Key terms in literary theory. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/contlt/theory/0

Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment

Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment

Psychoanalytic Theory was first developed by Sigmund Freud which was based off of treatment that administered to his patients suffering from neurological disorders and is the “framework for understanding the impact of the unconscious on thoughts, feeling, and behavior.  Freud posited that most of what motivates individuals lies outside of their immediate awareness” ("Psychoanalytic Theory," 2008).  This paper will provide a Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment by comparing and contrasting the psychoanalytic theories of Freud, Jung and Adler and give two characteristics of each theory that I agree with and two characteristics that I disagree with. As a part of the assessment this paper will describe the stages of Freud’s theory and explain characteristics of personality using those components and describe uses of at least three Freudian defense mechanisms with real-life examples. 

Freud, Jung, Adler

Freud is considered to be the father of psychoanalysis because of his theory that was developed concerning the mind and for a method of treatment for mental illness.  Freud’s theories of the mind consist of “the division of mental experience into the conscious and the unconscious, and the structure of the personality in the ID, ego and superego” ("Freud, Sigmund," 2006).  Freud’s theory interpreted “the id as fundamental, containing the inherited biological disposition of the individual, with the ego and superego developing through the formative first five years of life” ("Freud, Sigmund," 2006).  

Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic theory is considered to be an “expansion of Freud’s theory beyond its sexual/gender connotation” (Blackbourn, 2006).    Jung’s theory followed many of Freud’s concepts but his approach was different in relation to women and has less emphasis on sex.  Jung’s theory states that “the human psyche is made up of the collective unconscious, conscious, ego, and persona.  The ego is reflective of individual experience partly existing in one’s conscious and partly unconscious” (Blackbourn, 2006).  Jung believed that “in the collective unconscious, we find these pre-mortise images, racial images established perhaps thousands of years ago” and that there are two main archetypes “anima which is the ideal male mate, and animus which is the ideal female mate and that the personal is a superficial social mask that the individual presents, or puts on while involved in a social relationship” (Blackbourn, 2006).     

Alfred Adler worked with Sigmund Freud for a period time as a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society; however their difference in opinions on psychoanalytic theory forced Adler to leave the Psychoanalytic Society and establish his own school of individual psychology that was based off of his beliefs that “striving for social success and power was fundamental to human motivation” ("Adler, Alfred," 2008).  According to Adler’s theory “individuals develop problems and maladjustments when they cannot surmount feelings of inferiority acquired in childhood.  This inferiority complex is often compensated for by assertive or aggressive behavior” ("Adler, Alfred," 2008). 

Freud believed that each personality was made up of a multilateral structure that consists of “the id which is the unconscious emotions, desires and fears which may surface in dreams or madness; the ego which is the conscious rationalizing section; and the superego, which may be compared to the conscience” ("Freud, Sigmund," 2008).  I agree with Freud’s theories on id, ego, and superego just like Jung and Adler; however I do not believe that everything is motivated by sexuality in the manner that Freud stated in his theory.  Freud’s theory is based off of stages that an individual must go through starting at a very young age with desires that need to be fulfilled and as the child becomes older and the ego develops it allows room for an individual to make decisions pertaining to their desires realistically and soon when the superego develops decisions can be made according to moral values of society.  Freud also believed that “the adoption of a satisfactory superego is dependent on the resolution of the Oedipus complex” which he considered a very important part of the Phallic Stage in his psychodynamic theory of development in which “the unconscious wish of little boys is to kill their father and marry their mother” ("Oedipus complex," 2006) and that is something that I completely disagree with. 

Adler’s theory states that “humans are motivated more by their subjective expectations of the future than by their objective experience of the past;” and that is a characteristic that I can agree with because I believe that when someone expects certain things to happen in their life they will set goals that will make them more inclined to work harder to achieve those goals which is motivation; however I do believe that certain experiences of the past can also be a source of motivation.

While I agree with Jung’s theory that states personality consist of “collective unconscious, conscious, ego, and persona” (Blackbourn, 2006),  I do not agree with his idea with what he believed to the content of the “collective unconscious” because I think it is impossible to have images in your unconscious mind from a time that you did not exist. 

Stages of Freud’s Theory and characteristics of personality

The first stage of Freud’s psychosexual development is the oral stage which is believed to take place before the one year’s of age in which “infants are driven to satisfy their drives of hunger and thirst, and they turn to their mother’s breast or bottle for this satisfaction, as well as for the security and pleasure” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.68).   During this stage infants are provided with comfort and develop trust; however at some point they have to learn to become less dependent on caretakers as they become older or they will experience a sense of codependency that could result in aggressive behavior.  After the oral stage comes the anal stage which occurs around the age of two “during which children are toilet trained” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p. 69).   Freud believes that during this stage desire is controlled by bladder and bowel movements in which children have to learn how to control their bodily needs and once they are successful at that task there is feelings of accomplishment and independence.  Freud believed that success at this stage is determined by the way in which parent’s toilet train because when praise and rewards are used when the child uses the toilet at the proper time it helps children feel competent.  The Phallic stage begins around the age of four and Freud believes that during this stage “sexual energy is focused on the genitals and children may explore their genitals and masturbate” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p. 70).  During this stage children begin to identify with the same-sex parent as they learn the difference between male and female in which feelings of inferiority can develop due to envy of the opposite sex.  The Latency stage occurs between the ages of 5 to 11 “in which no important psychosexual developments take place and during which sexual urges are not directly expressed by instead are channeled into other activities such as going to school and making friends” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.72). During the latent period children are more focused on relationships with peers and hobbies which are very important for the development of social and communication skills and well as building self-confidence.  The genital stage is the final stage that occurs at the beginning of “adolescence in which attention is turned toward heterosexual relations” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.72) and lasts throughout an individual’s life in which there is a growing interest in the well-being of others which differs from earlier stages which were mainly concerned with the needs of oneself. 

Defense Mechanisms

Repression is “a defense mechanism that pushes threatening thought into the unconscious” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.75). Many rape victims cope with using repression as a defense mechanism because sometimes it helps them to cope with everyday life because they push the traumatic events into their unconscious as if they never happened.  As someone becomes older and claims to have no memory of childhood experiences it could be very possible that they have repressed that time in their due to traumatic experiences. 

Denial is a “defense mechanism in which one refuses to acknowledge anxiety provoking stimulus” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.82).  Denial is a very common defense mechanism; however it is most common in individuals that are suffering from drug and alcohol addictions because they refuse to acknowledge that a problem does exist.  An individual that is in denial has actually forced themselves to believe that nothing is wrong and then they try to convince others such as friends and family. 

Rationalization is “a defense mechanism in which post-hoc logical explanations are given for behaviors that were actually driven by internal unconscious motives” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.85).   Everyone always tries to rationalize their behavior especially when they know it was wrong but somehow they try to give a logical explanation such as the person that gets caught stealing out of the grocery store.  They know they behavior is wrong but they will try to rationalize that behavior by claiming to be in dire need of food; however stealing food is not the way to solve your hunger problem because they are other options but they will try their best to rationalize that behavior.

Conclusion

Sigmund Freud was the first to develop psychoanalytic theory based off of his case studies of his patients that were suffering from neurological disorders.  Freud believed that the structure of human personality derived from the id, ego and superego and from that he developed psychosexual stages of development to explain how one’s personality developed with much emphasis on sexuality which is something that Jung and Adler disagreed with because they did believe that sexuality played much of a role in personality development.  Jung believed in the concepts of archetypes and Adler believed that individuals are self-determined; however both Jung and Adler agreed with Freud’s concepts of the id, ego and superego.  The concept of defense mechanisms is a part of psychoanalytic theory developed by Freud that “distort reality to protect the ego” and are used by individuals in various situations for different reasons and can sometimes be unknown.

References

Adler's theory of personality. (2006). Elsevier’s dictionary of psychological theories. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/estpsyctheory/adler_s_theory_of_personality/0

Adler, Alfred. (2008). Philip’s encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/philipency/adler_alfred/0

Blackbourn, J. (2006). Jung, Carl. Encyclopedia of educational leadership and administration. doi:10.4135/9781412939584.n307

Freud, Sigmund. (2006). Collins Dictionary of Sociology. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/collinssoc/freud_sigmund/0

Freud, Sigmund. (2008). Philip’s encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/philipency/freud_sigmund/0

Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W. (2012). Personality: Classic Theories and Modern Research (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn & Bacon.

Oedipus complex. (2006). Collins Dictionary of Sociology. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/collinssoc/oedipus_complex/0

Psychoanalytic Theory. (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 6(2), 576-578. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3045302103&v=2.1&u=uphoenix&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=899f4ccf06c4062cecaa780a3f09e87e

Pay It Forward

Pay It Forward

A random act of kindness that I performed this week was that I anonymously paid my friend electric bill.  She has been out of work since December when she slipped on an icy platform and broke her knee and times have been really difficult for the family so I decided to pay her electric bill since that is one bill that she was having difficulty getting help with paying.  She doesn’t know yet that the bill was paid but she will when she calls to try and get a payment arrangement and I know that will relieve some of the stress that she has been under.  I do not plan on telling her that I am the one who paid the bill because I do not want her to feel obligated to pay me back, I just want to help her in any way that I can until things get better for her and her family.

Altruism, Personal and Professional Social Responsibility, and Codependency

Altruism can be defined as “the conscious devotion to helping others regardless of whether the motivation is self-interested or other centered.  It is a premeditated pursuit of charity to unify and increase the overall welfare of society” (Wasieleski, 2008).  In contrast to Altruism, professional social responsibility is doing things that benefit society and not just individuals.  Codependency is “a psychological syndrome noted in partners or relatives of persons with alcohol or drug addiction that includes low self-esteem and a unreasonably high need for approval and affection, and denial---both of their own personal needs and of problems within the family” ("codependency," 2014).   Many people believe that acts of altruism are rare; however I disagree because I have witnessed as well as performed altruistic deeds because it was something that needed to be done at the time.  Professional social responsibility is very common; although it may not always be genuine and codependent actions happen because the individual that is on the opposite side of the receiving end is in need of the mutual relationship with the individual that is receiving the benefits.     

Altruism Application to Psychology or Psychological Principles

The desire to want to help individuals could be considered altruism in psychology, however many individuals that practice psychology may not be doing it for that reason but they do have a professional social responsibility to assist individuals in seeking a better quality of life. Altruism works together with psychological principles because they are intended to alleviate the difficulties that human beings suffer from without any personal agenda or profit.

Altruism Improvement on Human Condition

At one point in time I was experiencing some financial struggles and someone anonymously paid my utility bills which relieved some of the stress I was experiencing, so when I performed the same act for my friend it provided me with a sense of good feelings because I was able to return the deed that was done for me once upon a time.  It is believed that altruism is supposed to provide a benefit for all involved which could turn into individuals consciously being involved in committing acts to pay it forward.  Altruism improves human condition because it allows individuals to help others in need without expecting anything in return and that may give those individuals receiving the help the desire to want to help someone else one day.

Personal and Professional Responsibilities Related to Altruism

Managed health care has prompted many psychological professionals to perform altruistic deeds, such as providing services free of charge to clients whom cannot afford to pay because they are considering the well-being of their clients above everything else. The Pro Bono Counseling Project was developed “to help fill the gap in mental health services to low-income individuals and families” (Bembry, Anderson, & Yaggy, 2002), that are affected by all the changes in medical coverage.

Future of Psychology in Contemporary Society & Altruism

The future of psychology in relation to altruism is dependent upon the professionals whom are practicing and whether or not their acts will be in the best interest of the clients or for personal and/or professional benefits.  Society is definitely in need of individuals who are strong, responsible and have a desire to make changes in the quality of human life, which is why altruism is very important in the field of psychology and contemporary society. 

Conclusion

Random acts of kindness can be considered altruistic deeds and can also be the result of an individual performing professional or social responsibility, which can improve human condition.  Many argue that there is no “true altruism”, however I disagree because there have been situation in which individuals had to immediately take actions to help an individuals in need without thinking about the benefits, such as the man who ran in the burning house to save the children that were trapped on the second floor.

References

Bembry, J. X., Anderson, B. K., & Yaggy, E. (2002). Mental Health Care for the Poor: The Pro Bono Counseling Project. «Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 13»(3). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220584086?accountid=458

Wasieleski, D. (2008). Altruism. Encyclopedia of business ethics and society. doi:10.4135/9781412956260.n28

codependency. (2014). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/889897/codependency

Ethics Awareness Inventory

Ethics Awareness Inventory

Ethics deal with questions such as “how should we live?  Shall we aim at happiness or at knowledge, virtue, or the creation of beautiful objects? If we choose happiness, will it be our own or the happiness of all? Can we justify living in opulence while elsewhere in the world people are starving? What are our obligations, if any to the generations of humans who will come after us and to the nonhuman animals with whom we share the planet?” ("ethics," 2014)  Basically, ethics is “the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong” ("ethics," 2014).  The Williams Institute for Ethics and Management developed the Ethics Awareness Inventory as a “tool for developing ethical competency” (Ethics Awareness Inventory, 2011) in professional settings.  This paper will briefly discuss the results from my Ethical Awareness Inventory as well as the role and importance of personal ethics in psychology, principles, and the code of conduct.  This paper will also discuss how ethics can affect how you apply psychological principles to personal, spiritual, social, and organizational issues and assess how ethics affects psychological knowledge and principles related to personal growth, health and development. In conclusion this paper will analyze advantages of psychology as a degree choice and how ethics play in role in deciding to pursue a degree in psychology.   

Ethics Awareness Inventory

Reading the numeric results from the Ethics Awareness Inventory were a bit confusing because I couldn’t understand what the numbers represent, however further into the results I learned that my ethical perspective is based on the results or consequences of my actions.  The results from my ethical perspective states that I believe “that conduct should be directed toward promoting the greatest good for the greatest number of persons.  In judging whether an individual’s actions are ethical, I look for concrete evidence”. I couldn’t agree more with this perspective because I almost never go by a person’s word but rather their actions. My ethical style is one that believes that “we each have a moral right to experience the good life”.  My focus is typically on the improving the well-being of the people because unhappy people have a negative effect on societies moral which influences ethical behavior.

Importance of Personal Ethics In Psychology

Personal ethics are developed through an individual’s lifespan and are extremely important in psychology because they influence professional ethics.  Professional ethics shape the foundation of professional behavior in psychology and that is why the “APA formed an ethics committee in the 1930s, and developed its first set of ethical principles in 1953” (Plante, 2011 p. 371).  The American Psychological Association developed the ethics code of conduct and ethical principles to protect the well-being of clients by outlining the responsibilities of a psychologist that ensures no harm is done to anyone obtaining services.  The code of conduct outlines what types of behaviors and actions in the field of psychology are acceptable as well as unacceptable.

Effects of Ethical Application

According to the Ethical Awareness Inventory results my increased awareness influences how I will apply psychological principles to personal, spiritual, social, and organizational issues.  I scored high on result-oriented perspectives that are based on the consequences of actions taken; therefore following the ethics code of conduct and principles are extremely likely in all aspects of life because positive results are extremely important.  I am goal-oriented, productive, systematic, and analytical and a global thinker and my main goal is to always do what is good for the people by focusing on getting positive results in any given situation. 

Ethics Effect on Personal Growth, Health, and Development

Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory on stages of moral development that shows how ethics effect personal growth, health, and development because ethical behavior develops as one advances through the stages.  Personal growth influences ethics because individual’s display responsible behavior through learning new skills and obtaining knowledge.  Personal development causes an individual to grow which changes their attitude in a positive manner.  A positive attitude is good for an individual’s health because it reduces stress.  Ethics boost self-confidence because individuals believe they are more capable of accomplishing certain things which increase development through learning from experience.   

Psychology as a Degree

Pursuing a degree in psychology can open the door to a variety of careers, such as Clinical Psychology, Forensic Psychology, Industrial/Organizational Psychology just to name a few.  A degree in psychology also is an excellent way to learn more about other people as well as yourself because by studying psychology individuals gain a better understanding of human nature such as how and why people think, feel and behave certain ways.  Ethics play a major role in people making the decision to pursue a degree in psychology because most people with strong ethics want to help others and psychology is a field that focus on helping people. 

Conclusion

The Ethics Awareness Inventory is used to assess the personal ethics, principles and moral judgment of an individual in any given situation and the results give an ethical perspective based of the answers provided.  Personal ethics is very important in psychology because they can have a direct influence on professional behavior and that is why the American Psychological Association developed the code of conduct to protect the well-being of clients by ensuring that psychologist do not allow their personal views affect their judgment when providing services. There are many benefits of obtaining a degree in psychology such as multiple career choices, however the most beneficial of all is learning what motivates human behavior.

  

  References

Ethics Awareness Inventory. (2011). The Williams Institute for Ethics and Management. Retrieved from http://www.ethics-twi.org/public/home/index.cfm

Plante, T. G. (2011). Contemporary clinical psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

ethics. (2014). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/194023/ethics

The Diverse Nature of Psychology

The Diverse Nature of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study “of the thought processes and behavior of humans and other animals in their interaction with the environment” ("Psychology," 2013).  The field of psychology consist of many different divisions that allow Psychologists the opportunity to “study processes of sense perception, thinking, learning, cognition, emotions, and motivations, personality, abnormal behavior, interactions between individuals, and interactions with the environment” ("Psychology," 2013), which dates back to ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, and India.  This paper will evaluate the influence of diversity on psychology’s major concepts as well as identify two examples of sub-disciplines and two examples of subtopics within psychology and how these examples can be applied to other disciplines and venues in contemporary society, relate the sub-disciplines and subtopics to a theoretical perspective.

The Influence of Diversity on Major Concepts in Psychology

Diversity has a very strong influence on the major concepts in psychology, such as the psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioral and evolutionary because each concept offers a different explanation on human behavior.  Psychodynamic was developed by Sigmund Freud states that “people’s actions reflect the way thoughts, feelings, and wishes are associated in their minds; that many of these processes are unconscious; and that mental processes can conflict with one another, leading to compromised among competing motives” (Kowalski & Westen, 2011 p. 15).  B.F. Skinner developed the concept on behaviorism that “focuses on learning and studies the way in which environmental events control behavior” (Kowalski & Westen, 2011 p.17). The cognitive concept “focuses on the way people perceive, process, and retrieve information” (Kowalski & Westen, 2011 p.19) and evolutionary states that “many human behavioral tendencies evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce” (Kowalski & Westen, 2011 p.25).   

Major concepts in psychology were developed though experiments and research on human behavior “and although the different perspectives offer radically different ways of approaching psychology each has made distinctive contributions” (Kowalski & Westen, 2011 p. 28) and have allowed researchers the opportunity to incorporate the findings into different areas of psychology giving psychologists the chance to go in more depth with assessments and diagnosis of individuals seeking treatment for psychological issues. 

Psychology Sub-disciplines and subtopics applications to other disciplines

A sub-discipline can be defined as “a specific area of study within a broader field” (American Psychological Association, 2010) and The American Psychological Association recognizes “four “specialties”-clinical, counseling, school, and industrial/organizational psychology (APA, 1997a)” as cited in (Landrum & Davis, 2010 p.13), however “there are 54 subdivisions of psychology with the American Psychological Association (APA) comprising diverse areas of practice and research” (American Psychological Association, 2010).

Industrial/organizational psychology “apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace in the interest of improving productivity and the quality of work life” (Landrum & Davis, 2010 p.15).  I/O psychologists work in organizations to help with hiring, training and developing healthy positive working environments. The psychological findings from I/O psychology can be applied in abnormal psychology and clinical psychology to provide information on how the workplace influences behavior that could cause an individual to develop mental illness. 

 Environmental psychology examines “the relation between psychology and the physical environment, including homes, offices, and urban or rural areas” (Landrum & Davis, 2010 p.14).  Environmental psychologists’ main focus is on how things in the environment, such as pollution, noise and traffic congestion affect human behavior and the role human’s contribute to those environmental stressors. Architecture, sociology and education are examples of other disciplines that can benefit from the application of environmental psychology through conducting research and applying those findings to help develop environments that improve human behavior.  

Educational psychology focus is “on the conditions under which effective teaching and learning take place” (Landrum & Davis, 2010 p.14).  An Educational psychologist will examine different aspects, such as “human abilities, student motivation, and the effect on the classroom of the diversity of race, ethnicity, and culture” (Landrum & Davis, 2010 p.14).  The psychological findings in educational psychology can be applied to other disciplines such as cross-cultural psychology to help psychologists gain a better understanding on how individuals from different cultural backgrounds process information during their learning experience. 

Theoretical Perspectives

Psychoanalytical and cognitive-behavioral are two major theoretical perspectives that relate to the sub-disciplines and subtopics that were discussed because they both state exceptional diverse views on mental illness in relation to human behavior.  Psychoanalytic theory “is a framework for understanding the impact of the unconscious on thoughts, feelings, and behavior” ("Psychoanalytic Theory," 2008), whereas cognitive-behavioral theory focus is on “changing the behaviors and cognition's that are thought to be currently maintaining a problem, rather than on helping a client to gain insight into the early developmental factors that may have initially set the stage for developing the problem” (Antony, 2005) like psychoanalytic theory.  The psychoanalytical method is long and tedious because it seeks to bring unconscious suppressed conflicts into consciousness so the issues can be resolved, whereas cognitive-behavioral method is short-term because it is “problem focused and goal driven” (Antony, 2005).  Although both theoretical perspectives are different in their approach they both share a common goal and that is to offer a resolution to improper thoughts and behavior that causes disturbances in human nature.

Conclusion

The diverse nature of psychology has its strengths and weaknesses that continue to evolve because of continuous research efforts that seek to understand human behavior from different viewpoints and perspectives.  Each sub-discipline and subtopic concentrates on specific areas of concerns; however they all seek to explain human behavior just only in that particular setting therefore the incorporation of theoretical perspectives is needed to get a more diverse understanding of certain behaviors.  I practice maintaining good mental health which allows me a greater understanding of diversity that exists within human nature especially where mental health is concerned. My concern and care for the well-being of others without bias gives me a better opportunity to learn more about the influences on human behavior, personalities, mental illness and how one day I could be of more service to those in need.

References

American Psychological Association. (2010). Divisions of APA. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/about/division/index.aspx

Antony, M. (2005). Cognitive behavior therapy. Encyclopedia of behavior modification and cognitive behavior therapy: Volume 1: Adult clinical applications volume 2: Child clinical applications volume 3: Educational applications. doi:10.4135/9781412950534.n49

Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Landrum, R. E., & Davis, S. F. (2010). The psychology major: Career options and strategies for success (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Psychoanalytic Theory. (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 6(2nd), , 576-578.

Psychology. (2013). The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/columency/psychology/0

Examination of Clinical Psychology

Examination of Clinical Psychology

The field of psychology focuses on the human mind and behavior to gain understanding of why people think, feel and behave certain ways.  In a continuous effort to gain understanding of human behavior psychologist observe individuals, administer questionnaires that are known as psychological testing and develop theories based off of results from experiments that are conducted.  The field of psychology has many sub-fields that include “human development, health, industry, law, and so on” ("Psychology," 2009).  This paper will examine the sub-field clinical psychology and discuss the history and evolving nature of that branch of psychology.  In addition to the examination of clinical psychology this paper will also explain the role of research and statistics in clinical psychology as well as discuss the differences between clinical psychology and other mental health professions, including social work, psychiatry, and social psychology. 

Clinical psychology is considered a major sub-field of psychology that involves “the scientific application of psychology with the purpose of evaluating, diagnosing, preventing, and treating psychological distress or dysfunctional behavior” ("Clinical psychology," 2009).  The basis of clinical psychology revolves around the notion that individuals have the ability to change therefore “clinical psychology focuses its efforts on the ways in which the human psyche interacts with the physical emotional and social aspects of health and dysfunction” (Plante, 2011 p. 5).  Clinical psychology applies psychological findings in relation to human behavior to help individuals manage issues that have developed due to unpleasant experiences that may occurred in their life.  Examples of issues that clinical psychology help individuals with include but are not limited to severe depression that may occur after a traumatic experience such as divorce or the loss of a loved one.  Substance abuse problems, “addictions, hallucinations, compulsive eating, sexual dysfunction, physical abuse, suicidal impulses and head injuries” (Plante, 2011 p. 6) just to name a few.

The field of clinical psychology concentration is on psychological assessment and treatment.  Psychological assessment “involves the use of intelligence, achievement, personality, and neuropsychological tests as well as clinical observations, to attain a better understanding of the individual’s psychological problem” ("Clinical psychology," 2009).  Psychological treatment happens “through psychotherapy that involves a relationship between a clinical psychologist and a patient, couple, family, or group, where the psychologists employs a series of techniques to relieve psychological distress or otherwise improve coping strategies” ("Clinical psychology," 2009).  Psychoanalysis, Psychodynamic therapy, behavioral therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy and humanistic therapy are different theoretical methods that clinical psychologist employ during treatment.

History

The field of psychology emerged as a science in 1879 when “Wilhelm Wundt, also known as the father of psychology, established the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research at Leipzig University in Germany” ("Psychology," 2009).   Soon after the establishment of the research laboratory, “William James published The Principles of Psychology, which laid the foundation for much of the stud of psychology that followed” ("Psychology," 2009) as well as Wundt’s publication of ‘The principles of Physiological Psychology and Theodor Fechner’s publication of The Elements of Psychophysics” (Plante, 2011).  These publications along with research laboratory prompted the establishment of the American Psychological Association in 1892.  The main agenda in psychology was to realistically measure human behavior through observation to gain an understanding of the connection between the human mind and behavior.

Lightner Witmer established the “first psychology clinic at the University of Pennsylvania in 1896” (Plante, 2011 p.32)  that created the term clinical psychology, however long before that development “several Greek thinkers were pivotal in the early development of integrative approaches to illness, and this, were precursors to a biopsychosocial perspective” (Plante, 2011 p. 33).   Ancient Greeks believed that there was a connection between mind and body in addition to their beliefs that God control health and illness.  Hippocrates was one of the first to provide a physiological explanation of disease and dysfunction by suggesting that disparities in the mixture and quantity of body fluids such as black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood was the cause of quite a few emotions and psychological disturbances, such as sadness, irritability, and anger.

Evolving Nature

The American Psychological Association was reluctant to accept a practical approach to psychology; however that did not stop the field of clinical psychology from evolving into a major contributor to the field of psychology with the help of the “works and writings of Sigmund Freud and his colleagues” (Plante, 2011).  Sigmund Freud expanded on the Greeks notion of the connection between the mind and body in which he “proposed that unconscious conflicts and emotional influences could bring about mental and physical illness” (Plante, 2011).  It took some time before Freud’s work actually had direct influence on clinical psychology, however eventually his ideas on human psychology were substituted for humanism, cognitive-behaviorism, and family system approaches.

Prior to World War II, there was not much efforts put into clinical psychology, however after the war, “clinical psychology was newly supported by government funds and expanded enormously” ("History of clinical psychology," 2004).  Eventually the American Psychological Association began to establish “an official system for accrediting training in clinical psychology” which prompted the Boulder Conference to “set the pattern for such programs, which sought to train scientist practitioners” ("History of clinical psychology," 2004).   

The field of clinical psychology continues to evolve due to changes that occur as research is conducted and results differentiate from previous research as well as “the evolution of Western medicine from a non-scientific endeavor to today’s high-tech standard of practice is traced” (Plante, 2011).   As clinical psychology evolved it bought about changes in psychological assessments that lead to mental health facilities being established and the beginning of psychotropic drugs being used as treatment of abnormal psychology.  Although these developments in the field of clinical psychology provide an alternate to what was considered traditional treatment they did not give a full explanation of the behavior in question therefore prompting for research to be continuous.

The Role of Research and Statistics

Research is the foundation that clinical psychology developed from because “research conducted by psychologists or others in the behavioral sciences provides the basis and direction for all professional activities” (Plante, 2011).  Research programs have been developed to assist psychologist in making a determination on “which assessment or treatment approach might be most effective for a particular clinical problem such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, or substance abuse problems” (Plante, 2011).  Statistics is also a part of the foundation that clinical psychology developed from because information gathered allows researchers to conclude whether or not it is that information provides significance and is relevant to a larger group of individuals. 

Clinical Psychology as it differs from other fields

Clinical Psychology differs from others fields such as mental health, social work, psychiatry, and social psychology because of the training that is needed and the educational requirements.  Clinical psychologist must complete Ph.D. or Doctor of Psychology program that consists of five years of graduate course work and studies that ends with a dissertations and a completion of one year supervised work in the field.  In addition to the educational requirements a clinical psychologist is required to obtain a license by the state before they can begin practice.  Social workers must have a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, pass a licensing examination and two years of clinical experience that is supervised by a licensed social worker.  Psychiatrist must attend medical school where they are required to study chemistry, physiology, and the science of medicine and also two years of applied clinical training.  After medical school psychiatric residency is also required as a part of continuing training.  Mental health requirements are a bachelors or master’s degree in psychology and clinical experience that they can be obtained on the job.  Social psychology requires a minimum of a master’s degree and typically works in settings where they are making observation on human interactions where they apply the knowledge they have on human behavior with scientific research methods which is similar to clinical psychology but it differs due to clinical psychology requiring that an individual have knowledge and skills with all psychology sub-fields.

Conclusion

The field of psychology emerged as a scientific discipline when the first laboratory was created for psychological research and soon after that clinical psychology emerged as a sub-field adding major contributions to the field of psychology. Several factors have contributed to the evolution of clinical psychology that dates back to the Greeks and Hippocrates theories that have allowed for psychologist to make continuous efforts to improve assessments and treatments of individuals using information gathered from research and statistics.  Clinical psychology differs from other disciplines because it’s focus is on applying the knowledge obtained from other disciplines and research to develop assessments and treatment for individuals. 

 References

Clinical psychology. (2009). The Sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences, 79. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n390

History of clinical psychology. (2004). The concise Corsini encyclopedia of psychology and behavioral science. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/wileypsych/history_of_clinical_psychology/0

Plante, T. G. (2011). Contemporary clinical psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Psychology. (2009). The Sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences, 416. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n2046

Attitude Survey on Bullying

Attitude Survey

A survey can be defined as “a data-collection methods in which individuals answer specific questions about their behavior, attitudes, beliefs, or emotions” (Mrug, 2010). Surveys are commonly used in several fields such as “social and behavioral sciences, political sciences, public health, and business” (Mrug, 2010).   An attitude survey will assess “attitudes in a target population, for example, attitudes towards consumer products (consumer surveys), evaluations of past experiences with products or services (customer satisfaction surveys), evaluations of policies and institutions (public opinion surveys), or evaluations of the state of the economy (consumer confidence surveys)” (Scholderer, 2011).   Bullying is an existing issue that is of interest to me that I created an attitude survey on. This paper will explain the purpose of the survey I developed as well as discuss the preliminary design issues that I experienced while creating the survey.  This paper will also describe the specific instruction for administering, scoring, and interpreting the attitude survey on bullying.

Purpose of Survey

Bullying is an “intentional harm-doing or harassment that is directed toward vulnerable targets and typically repeated.  Bullying encompasses a wide range of malicious aggressive behaviors, including physical violence, verbal mockery, threats, ostracism, and rumors spread either orally, or by other means of communication, such as the internet” ("bullying," 2014).  Bullying has become an increasing problem with school-aged children that has become a major concern to me because my child had been the victim in school.   The purpose of the survey I created was to assess the attitudes that children have on bullying.  The questions were also designed to assess a child’s perception of bullying as it relates to the school environment.  Assessing the attitudes and perceptions of the students on bullying can give school administration a better understanding of how they children are feeling and can offer guidance as to how to resolve the issues of bullying in school.  Children are supposed to feel safe in school and bullying takes away from that feeling of being safe.  The attitude survey on bullying will pinpoint just how serious the issue is within the school.

Preliminary Design Issues

The target audience for the attitude survey on bullying should be the seventh and eighth grade students because I believe that they are the students that have had the most experience at the school and can give accurate accounts on their feelings towards bullying.  During the last week of school the survey should be handed out during homeroom class.  A significant issue that occurred was the initial plan for the types of questions that I would ask to receive precise and attentive replies, therefore I complied sixteen questions that should take no more than five to ten minutes to complete.  The survey uses the Likert scale to measure attitude with possible answers to questions being “strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, or strongly disagree” (Jamieson, 2008).  The survey will be a general measure of the student’s attitudes towards bullying on a five point scale and their experiences at the school which can allow the school to determine how serious the bullying is so they can take the necessary steps to address the issue for the upcoming semester.  A significant issue that occurred was the initial plan for the types of questions that I would ask to receive precise and attentive replies.

Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation

The survey should be administered by school personnel, preferably a guidance counselor because they can explain in more details the purpose of the survey and what they hope to accomplish with the help of the students, however the homeroom teacher could also administer the survey to the students in their homeroom providing the same details because of the unavailability of the guidance counselors in schools.  An aspect of the Likert scale is their directionality, meaning “the categories of response may be increasingly positive or increasing negative” (Jamieson, 2008).  The target of the responses have directionality, which means that a rating of strongly agree will correspond to a more favored attitude against bullying.  In order to have accurate results on scoring it is important that all of the students in the seventh and eighth grade complete the survey.  The scores will be calculated to provide an interpretation of how serious the students perceive bullying at the school.  The score can be interpreted by using a point scale “where 1=strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree, and 5 = strongly disagree” (Jamieson, 2008).  Based on this point scale it can be interpreted that  students whom agree or strongly agree to the questions will produce low scores when could mean that they  may have either experienced being bullied or witnessed someone being bullied therefore prompting those responses which could bring out a negative perception towards bullying at the school.

Conclusion

Attitude surveys are designed to assess how people feel about certain subjects, such as bullying.  Bullying occurs when a person is consistently exposed to “malicious and aggressive” behavior for long periods of time which is increasingly occurring in schools across the country and has become a major concern to parents as well as educational professionals and political officials; however the issues have yet to be addressed properly within the schools.  The survey I created uses the Likert scale method of scoring to assess the attitudes of students in regards to bullying at school.  The purpose of the survey was to help school administration gain a better understanding of how the students feel about bullying and the possible effects that bullying has on the learning environment. 

 

References

Jamieson, S. (2008). Likert scale. Encyclopedia of epidemiology. doi:10.4135/9781412953948.n261

Mrug, S. (2010). Survey. Encyclopedia of research design. doi:10.4135/9781412961288.n449

Scholderer, J. (2011). Attitude surveys. Encyclopedia of consumer culture. doi:10.4135/9781412994248.n26

bullying. (2014). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/687645/bullying

Introduction to Psychological Testing

Introduction to Psychological Testing

Psychology is defined as “the scientific study of behavior and the mind” ("Psychology," 2009). As a part of the scientific study of the human mind and behavior psychologist use “systematic, objective methods of observation to study any activity that can be observed, recorder, and measured” ("Psychology," 2009).  As a part of studying the mind and behavior, psychological testing were developed to assist psychologist in reaching some sort of conclusion in regards to human behavior.  In this essay I will summarize the major assumptions and fundamental questions associated with psychological testing.  As a part of my summary I will define the term test, describe the major categories of tests and identify the major uses and users of these tests and I will compare and contrast the concepts of reliability and validity and discuss how they affect the field of psychological testing.

Defining Test

According to the free dictionary by Farlex a test is defined as “a series of questions, problems, or physical responses designed to determine knowledge, intelligence, or ability” (The free dictionary by Farlex, 2014).  The word test was derived from “an old French word, with the earliest recorded use in English being by Chaucer in 1368.  In its origin, it meant a cup used for smelting gold or silver ore, perhaps an apropos reference for some high-stakes testing today” (Hogan, 2007 p. 38).   In general a test is a procedure that can be used to measure specific factors or abilities.  There are various types of test that cover specific areas such as intelligence, medical aptitude, personality and many other areas. 

Major Test Categories

There are five major test categories, mental ability, achievement, personality, interests and attitudes and neuropsychological.  Mental ability test “measures both general intelligence and specific intellectual factors” (Laurent, 2007) that includes an individual’s ability to retain memory, spatial visualization and creative thinking.  Achievement test seeks to measure an individual’s “level of knowledge or skill in a particular domain” (Hogan, 2007 p. 6) such as reading and math.  Personality test “measure abstract personality traits, which vary in their presence on human beings and predispose individuals to certain patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving” ("Personality test," 2009). Interest and attitude test include vocational interest measures that “help individuals explore job related to their interest” and is commonly used in high school and colleges. In this category there are also measures of attitude towards topics, groups and practices” (Hogan, 2007 p.8).   Neuropsychological test are designed to produce information about an individual’s “central nervous system, especially the brain” (Hogan, 2007 p. 8).  Neuropsychological test are often used in conjunction with other test such as personality and mental abilities.  

Primary Uses and Users of Major Test

There are four separate groups that are considered to be primary users of the five major test categories previously identified that include clinical, educational, personnel, and research.  When major test are for clinical use it can be in the “fields of clinical psychology, counseling, school psychology, and neuropsychology”.  When major test are being used for clinical purposes psychologist are trying to help an individual whom currently has or may have had some type of problem and the purpose of the test is to “help identify the nature and severity of the problem, and perhaps provide some suggestions about how to deal with the problem.  Testing may also help to measure progress in dealing with the problem” (Hogan, 2007 p.12).   Educational settings are another use of major test by school psychologist or counselors and the “actual users of the test information include teachers, educational administrators, parents, and the general public, especially as represented by such officials as legislators and school boards” (Hogan, 2007 p.12).  Major test in educational settings are used to determine the level at which students are learning through achievement tests and also to measure the academic success of students in the future.  Personnel testing are another use of major test and are primarily used by businesses and the military. Major test are used in businesses as well as the military to identify and select individuals that are qualified to fill available positions and typically will include measures of “general mental ability, specific job-related skills, and personality characteristics” (Hogan, 2007 p. 13).  Major test are used when conducting research in “psychology, education, and other social/behavioral sciences” (Hogan, 2007 p. 14).  In the research process the function of the test “the operational definition of the dependent variable” as well as “describing samples” and it also “involves research on the tests themselves” (Hogan, 2007 p.14). 

Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity are two very important aspects of psychological testing that could be misinterpreted as being one and the same; however they have completely different meanings.  Reliability represents the consistency in the measurements and the validity represents whether the test measures the purpose of the test.  The value of a test is determined by reliability and validity because when results are consistent and support a hypothesis it can help researchers draw conclusion that will allow for proper diagnosis and treatment for individuals.

Conclusion

Testing is a method that is used to gather information that will measure certain abilities in individuals such as achievements, personality, interest and attitudes and neuropsychological.    The major categories of test are conducted in different settings such as clinical, educational, personnel and research that all serve a main purpose and that is to supply information to the user that could assist in helping individuals and that is why reliability and validity is very important.  Reliability and validity shows results that are consistent and specific in relation the type of test and that is what gives users assistance in providing the necessary things needed to help individuals.

References

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Laurent, J. (2007). Primary mental abilities test. Encyclopedia of special education A reference for the education of children adolescents, and adults with disabilities and other exceptional individuals. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/wileyse/primary_mental_abilities_test/0

Personality test. (2009). The Sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences, 379. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n1863

Psychology. (2009). The Sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n2046

The free dictionary by Farlex. (2014). Test. Retrieved from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/test

Implications for the Future

Implications for the Future

The area in which we live, work, socialize and do many other things is known as the environment and that “is a term used to encompass all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth” ("Environment," 2010).  Human behavior has the ability to affect the environment in either a positive or negative manner and the field of environmental psychology was developed to help individuals gain understanding the relationship between human behavior and the environment.  Environmental issues are a main concern in relation to human behavior and the environment as environmentalist seek to bring about changes to improve environmental conditions.  Environmental issues “are concerned with human actions that affect the biosphere that humans and other species inhabit” (Grant, 2011).  Pollution is an environmental problem that I observe in my local community and I plan to evaluate at least two strategies for promoting positive environmental behavior.  As a part of my evaluation I will explain how positive and negative consequences can increase pro-environmental behaviors, I will also describe at least one positive and one negative example of how technological advances have impacted the environment and I will assess the influence of environmental policies.

Environmental Issue: Pollution

Pollution is defined as “unwanted or detrimental changes in a natural system.  Usually pollution is associated with the presence of toxic chemicals in some large quantity, but pollution can also be caused by the presence of excess quantities of heat or by excessive fertilization with nutrients” (Freedman, 2011).  Pollution comes in many forms such as air, water, and noise and each one of these is a major contributor to the changes in the environment that often results in a negative effect.  Pollution has a negative impact on plants animals, air and water and can cause many health problems. In this paper the focus will be on air pollution because it has the potential to cause harm to humans as well as the environment. 

Air pollution is “the release of chemicals, particulate matter or other airborne substances into the atmosphere in large enough quantities that are harmful to humans, animals or natural ecosystems” (McCreery, 2011).  Air pollution contains chemicals that are produced naturally as well as substances that are man-made and is considered to be a very serious problem in the world.  Air pollutants are broken down into two categories, primary and secondary.  “Primary air pollutants cause pollution following their direct release into the environment from the generating source.  The substance released may already be present in some quantities, but it is considered a primary pollutant if the additional release brings the total quantity of the substance to pollution levels” (Rehkopf, L, 2011).  Examples of primary pollutants can range from volcano ashes, vehicle exhaust, “smoke, soot, dust and liquid droplets released into the air either by the burning of fuel or other industrial or agricultural processes” (Rehkopf, L, 2011).  Secondary pollutants are produced “when two or more primary pollutants react in the atmosphere and cause additional atmospheric pollution” (Rehkopf, L, 2011). Smog is an example of a secondary air pollutant that occurs when vehicle exhaust and industrial pollution mix with sunlight. Urban air quality and indoor air pollution is considered to be two of the worst air pollution problems in the world and in order to solve these problems individuals must first understand the effects therefore prompting a search for methods to solve them.

Strategies for promoting positive environmental behavior

The United States congress developed The Clean Air Act which “is a federal law that attempts to improve air quality by regulating air pollution” (Kedzior, 2011).  The Clean Air Act was first developed in 1970 and enlisted the Environmental Protection Agency to develop National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to provide protection to public health and welfare by regulating emissions of hazardous air pollutants.  The Clean Air Act contains six titles that refer to methods to improve air quality.  The first title focuses on six of the most common air pollutants, “sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and particulate matter” (Kedzior, 2011).  The title requires that the Environmental Protection Agency set levels of amount of exposure for each state and implement a “plan that describes measures for ensuring compliance.  Noncompliant states must implement specified control measures and are subject to possible penalties” (Kedzior, 2011).  The second title “regulates the emissions of motor vehicles, aircrafts, and other moving sources.  It also supports requirements related to the emissions of vehicle-assembly plants, adoption of low-sulfur diesel fuels , and in certain metropolitan areas, use of  reformulated gasoline and vapor recovery nozzles” (Kedzior, 2011).  Title two has encouraged automobile makers to create fuel efficient automobiles as well as automobiles that only require electricity to operate.   The third title “controls the emission of hazardous or toxic pollutants connected with serious illness, including lead, mercury, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)” (Kedzior, 2011).  Title three has led to the elimination of lead-based paint being used in homes and businesses as well as the creation of recyclable batteries that prevent from batteries being thrown in the trash.  The fourth title “provides oversight of industrial emissions related to acid deposition (acid rain).  Controls measures aim to reduce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to half of 1980 emission levels” (Kedzior, 2011).  The fifth title “introduces a program for issuing and trading pollution emission permits.  The permit-trading program is run by individual states and allows for temporal and spatial distribution of pollutant emissions within and between industries” (Kedzior, 2011).  The sixth title “regulates the production and use of ozone-depleting chemical substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons”.  The sixth title requires the Environmental Protection Agency “to establish a program to gradually phase out all ozone-destroying chemicals and support, the development of ozone-friendly substitutes” (Kedzior, 2011).

The Clean Air Act is a strategy for promoting positive environmental behavior because it requires organizations to engage in using environmental friendly techniques that “have lowered the levels of six common pollutants such as particles, ozone, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, as well as many other toxic pollutants” (Clean Air Act, 2014).  Under the Clean Air Act vehicle manufactures have been required to produce environmentally friendly automobiles as well as eliminated the use of lead in gasoline.

Recycling is another strategy for promoting positive environmental behavior because “recycling is the process of taking materials that are no longer needed and turning them into new products that can be used” (Vynne, 2011).  When individuals recycle is cut downs on the amount of waste that goes into landfills and incinerators.  Recycling allows natural resources to be preserved and puts a stop to pollution by eliminating the need to use new raw materials.  Recycling has many benefits that include “reduced environmental degradation and greenhouse gas emissions, economic savings, and job creation” (Vynne, 2011). 

Recycling has been around for a very long time; however the importance of recycling has just became a growing trend as individuals have become more aware of how it affects the environment.  Many schools have begun to encourage their students to recycle by teaching them how recycling helps the environment and how not recycling can damage the environment.  When learned at an early age children can develop a high level of consciousness that would result in them being pro-environment.  Businesses along with schools have also implemented policies to encourage their workers to be pro-environment by being responsible for recycling products.

Recycling promotes positive environmental behavior because it decreases the environmental problems that are caused by landfills.  Recycling teaches individuals how to dispose of their unwanted items in a safe manner aside from just putting everything in the trash which would ultimately end up in a landfill and possibly produce methane because of the rotting of organic matter that could lead to the production of toxic fumes. 

How Positive and Negative Consequences can increase pro-environmental behavior

Positive reinforcement “refers to the addition of a stimulus following a behavior that produces an increase in the future likelihood of that behavior or similar behaviors in similar settings” (Fitzgerald, 2005).  Recycling is a pro-environmental behavior that results in positive consequences because individuals that recycle also save money because items that are recycled cost less money.  Negative reinforcement “also always produces an increase in the probability of a response, but does so by removing, or subtracting, a stimulus that is aversive following a behavior” (Fitzgerald, 2005). Individuals that do not adhere to the rules and regulations on recycling are subject to fines and penalties, which is a negative consequence that can increase pro-environmental behavior.

Examples of how technological advances have impacted the environment

Technological convergence is the process in which technologies that currently exist come together to produce new technology.  The convergence history in cars is a classic example of how technological advances have impacted the environment in a positive and negative manner.  “The first technology convergence in cars was the steam power, and the second was electrical power, later, technology convergence came about for the gas powered car, which is still being used today” ("Technological convergence throughout the eras," 2009).   The technological advance of cars has had a negative impact on the environment because the exhaust that was produced by cars caused pollution to the environment.  However the technological advances of cars also has a positive impact on the environment because through technology and Environmental Protection Agency regulations automobile makers are inclined to produce more environmental friendly cars that require less gasoline because they are designed to be fuel efficient.

Influence of Environmental Policies

Environmental policies are defined as “ a government’s chosen course of action of plan to address issues such as pollution, wildlife protection, land use, energy production and use, waste generation, and waste disposal” (McCue, Wolf,  & Muhr, 2003).  Environmental polices influence human behavior because it requires individuals to be more conscious of their behavior in relation to the environment.  Environmental polices set rules and regulations that individuals are required to follow to demonstrate pro-environmental behaviors.  The Environmental Protection Agency works to develop guidelines that individuals are required to follow to eliminate pollution and other things that negatively affect the environment.

Conclusion

Pollution is an environmental issue that I have observed in my community as well as surrounding areas.  Air pollution not only causes environmental issues it also creates health problems for individuals that are exposed to airborne pollutants for an extended period of time.  Recycling in conjunction with the Clean Air Act are strategies that promote positive environmental behavior because they require individuals to engage in methods that are environmental friendly and if individuals do not follow the rules and regulations they are subject to penalties and fines from the United States Government.  The technological advances of cars has had positive and negative impacts on the environment because while the exhaust from gasoline has a negative impact on the environment, car manufacturers are diligently working to develop cars that are fuel efficient and produce less exhaust in the air therefore cutting back on the airborne pollutants that come for vehicle emissions.

 References

Brimblecombe, P. (2011). Air Pollution. Environmental Encyclopedia, 1(4), 38-41.

Brunekreef, B., & Holgate, S. T. (2002). Air Pollution and health. The Lancet. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/199021108?accountid=458

Clean Air Act. (2014). Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/progress.html

Environment. (2010). Social Trends, 40(1), , 155-168.

Fitzgerald, D. (2005). Reinforcement. Encyclopedia of human development. doi:10.4135/9781412952484.n519

Freedman, B. (2011). Pollution. Environmental Encyclopedia, 2(4), 1304-1307.

Grant, W. (2011). Environmental issues. International encyclopedia of political science. doi:10.4135/9781412959636.n186

Kedzior, S. (2011). Clean air act. Green politics: An A-to-Z guide. doi:10.4135/9781412971867.n17

McCreery, A. (2011). Air pollution. Green culture: An A-to-Z guide. doi:10.4135/9781412975711.n3

McCue, C., Wolf, K., & Muhr, J. (2003). Environmental Policy. Environmental Encyclopedia, 1(3), 505-507.

Rehkopf, L. (2011). Primary Pollutant. Environmental Encyclopedia, 2(4), 1334-1335.

Seitz, J. (1991). Urban air quality. The strategy. EPA Journal, 17(1), 27.

Technological convergence throughout the eras. (2009). Business Strategy Series. doi:10.1108/17515630910937742

Vynne, S. (2011). Recycling. Green energy An A-to-Z guide. doi:10.4135/9781412971850.n109

How human behavior can negatively and positively affect the environment.

Human Behavior

Environmental psychology seeks to explore how human behavior affects the environment negatively and positively.  This paper will explore how human behavior affects the environment by explaining how environmental cues shape behavior and also evaluating how behavior can be modified to support sustainability and how this can limit a negative impact on the environment.  I will also discuss how social norms influence behaviors and beliefs about the environment and I will identify at least two possible solutions that could successfully change behavior and habits in order to lessen negative environmental impact.

Environmental Cues

Cues are defined as “elements in the environment that convey important information or trigger an affective reaction” (Steg, 2013 p.120).  Cues are a very important aspect in how the environment influences behavior because they prompt individuals to do something in relation to the environment that they are exposed to rather than something they are told to do.  A classic example of an environmental cue that has influence on human behavior is litter. Litter is the result of individuals disposing of their trash improperly in an unacceptable location such as on the ground in public. “Littering is influenced by environmental cues” (Cronin & Brandolph, 2008) and can affect the environment negatively or positively depending on the current state of the environment.  For example, in many urban areas there are certain locations where trash is piled up and individuals that frequent those areas may tend to add to the trash by dumping their own and that is human behavior negatively affecting the environment.  The presence of trash and graffiti can be seen as the norm in many areas because the individuals living in that area have become so accustomed to seeing the trash pile up and graffiti that they have no idea of how it is affecting the environment and that is why they do not make any effort in trying to clean it up.  The act of littering can affect human behavior in a positive manner in some instances when individuals are exposed to neighborhoods “that are cleaned up and people know that’s not a place to litter” (Cronin & Brandolph, 2008).  Individuals that take pride in the community that they live in will be more than likely prone to cleaning up litter no matter where they are which can send positive messages to others encouraging them to participate in cleaning up the environment.

Modifying Behavior to Support Sustainability

According the Environmental Protection Agency “sustainability is based on a simple principle: Everything that we need for our survival and well-being depends, either directly or indirectly, on our natural environment” (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014).  Sustainability establishes and  supports “the conditions under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony, that permit fulfilling the social, economic and other requirements of present and future generations” (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014).  Normal human behavior that has been learned can be modified to support sustainability through operant conditioning which is “the modification of behavior through the management of the consequences” (Behavior modification, 2009). Behavior modification through operant conditioning can limit a negative impact on the environment because “behavior is strengthened when it is followed by a reward and weakened when followed by something aversive” (Behavior modification, 2009).  Littering is a serious offense and if caught by law enforcement you could face fines and possible imprisonment.  When the laws are enforced human behavior is modified because individuals seek to avoid punishment.  Other behaviors that have been learned can be modified to support sustainability such as doing certain things to conserve energy like turning off lights when no one is occupying the space as well as unplugging appliances that are not being used.  Conserving energy benefits the environment as well as the individual because the cost of energy usage will decrease.

Social Norms Influence on Behavior and Beliefs

Social norm can be defined as “an informal rule regarding social behavior” ("Social norm," 2009). Social norms vary between cultures and have changed with the times whereas a certain behavior that was once accepted may not be accepted now for various reasons.  Cigarette smoking is an example of a social norm that was accepted for years, however in recent times research has been conducted to uncover the many health problems that have been linked to cigarette smoking.  Uncovering the health risk of smoking cigarettes have prompted campaigns to encourage individuals to quit as well as smoking has been banned in many public places such as restaurants and bars.  Social norms influence human behavior and beliefs about the environment because they encourage conformity to what is considered normal in relation to the environment.  Social norms in relation to the environment exist when individuals “obey the norm voluntarily if their individual goals are in line with the normatively required behavior, or they might be forced to obey the norm because their individual goals differ from the normatively required behavior, in which case the enforcement of the norm presupposes the norm violations are punished” (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2004).  Recycling is an example of a social norm that has influenced human behaviors and beliefs in a positive manner about the environment because recycling is a pro-environmental behavior and when performed it encourages individuals to be more proactive in taking care of the environment. 

Solutions That Could Successfully Change Behavior and Habits  

Recycling is an example of a social norm that influence behavior and beliefs about the environment in a positive manner as well as I believe that it is a solution that could successfully change behavior and habits in order to lessen negative environmental impact.  Recycling “is an activity that aims to transform used consumer products and packaging into new products rather than disposing them of in landfills or by other means” (Sheley, 2011).   When individuals recycle the community and environment benefit because recycling “reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and incinerators; conserve natural resources such as timber, water, and minerals, prevent pollution by reducing the need to collect new raw materials; saves energy; reduces greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global climate change; helps sustain the environment for future generations; and helps create new well-paying jobs in the recycling and manufacturing industries in the United States” (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2014).

Another possible solution that could successfully change behavior and habits in order to lessen negative environmental impact is the going green initiative.  Recycling is a part of the going green movement; however it has its separate entity.  The going green movement “refers to the process of selling products and/or services based on their environmental benefits” (Bhatt & Sharma, 2012).  The products that are developed in the going green movement are designed to be environmentally friendly, which means that their characteristics must be “originally grown, recyclable, reusable and biodegradable, made from natural ingredients, contain recycled contents, non-toxic chemical, contents under approved chemical, do not harm or pollute the environment, will not be tested on animals, and have eco-friendly packaging” (Bhatt & Sharma, 2012).

Conclusion

Human behavior can affect the environment in a negative or positive manner.  Environmental cues shape behavior in relation to what is considered the norm in any given situation.  Operant conditioning is a method of behavior modification that can be used to support sustainability because it reinforces rewards and consequences for certain behaviors.  Social norms influence behaviors and beliefs about the environment because people are more than likely to conform to the norm in their environment so if pro-environment actions are being practiced people who copy those same behaviors.  Recycling and going green are two possible solutions that could successfully change behavior and habits in order to lessen negative environmental impact because they encourage reusing products that would otherwise just take up space in landfills and the use of environmental friendly products that are designed to eliminate hazards.  Both recycling and going green initiative can modify behavior through social marketing, which is a guaranteed method of promoting these solutions.

References

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Bhatt, S., & Sharma, S. (2012). Going Green. International Journal of Management Research and Reviews, 2(8), 1400-1404.

Cronin, M., & Brandolph, A. (2008). Litter bugs volunteers to tidy up areas in two counties. Tribune-Review/Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/382417882?accountid=458

Environmental Protection Agency. (2014). Sustainability. Retrieved from http://epa.gov/sustainability/basicinfo.htm

Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2004). Social norms and human cooperation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(4), 185-190. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.02.007

Sheley, L. (2011). Recycling. Green culture: An A-to-Z guide. doi:10.4135/9781412975711.n113

Social norm. (2009). The Sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences, 481. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n2367

Steg, L. (2013). Environmental psychology: An introduction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2014). Recycling Basics. Retrieved from http://www2.epa.gov/recycle/recycling-basics