Social Influences on Behavior

Social Influences on Behavior

Social Psychology is "the scientific study of the behavior of individuals in their social and cultural setting" ("Social Psychology," 2013).  Social psychology focuses on how individuals think about each other and how they relate to one another.  It primarily studies human social behaviors and mental processes.  In social psychology there is a process known as socialization “where people learn skills, knowledge and values, motives and roles appropriate to their position in a social group or society, resulting in particular identity or identities relevant to that social group or society.  Socialization takes place through communicative interaction with others whenever new roles are engaged as part of a group or society.  One basic assumption of socialization theory is the internalization of group or social requirements.  During socialization, one learns to take on an identity associated with a particular group and perform it in a competent manner (Fritz, 2010).”

The socialization theory is evidence of how social influences affect an individual’s behavior.  Social influence is defined as the process wherein one person’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors are changed as a result of interaction with another individual or with a group.  According to an article in the encyclopedia of social networks Carmen Stavrositu states that “social influence takes many forms and can be more narrowly conceptualized as compliance (change in attitude, beliefs, or behavior as a result of a direct request); persuasion (change in attitudes, beliefs, or behavior as a result of exposure to a message); or conformity (the tendency to align one’s attitude, beliefs, and behaviors with those around oneself) (Stavrositu, 2011).”

We all act and behave in certain ways at different time and in different places.  Social influences can have a very powerful effect on the change of an individual’s behaviors according to what is going on around us at the time. In other words, a social situation can have control over an individual’s personality no matter what type of values and beliefs they may have and can influence their behavior in a positive or negative way.

Social influences can affect an individual’s behavior by changing their attitude which is their internal/mental about a specific situation, object or concept.  This could be a positive change because it could open up a closed-minded individual’s beliefs to include new choices in their life about things they probably would have never considered before.  For example,  If someone has a negative attitude towards homeless people and is put in an social setting designed to help the homeless, it will eventually change their attitude towards the homeless because they will get a better understanding of why people are put in that type of situation.  An individual placed in this type of social setting makes observation of others and how they have genuine care, compassion and concern for helping people placed there for various reasons will eventually begin to want to do better at helping because they realized that others are watching.  This theory is known as social facilitation which implies that whenever people are being watched by others, they will do well on things they are already good at doing.  And in the case of caring for individuals the theory suggests that the presence of people in social situations creates an atmosphere of evaluation (Strauss, 2001).  On the flip side of things social loafing can also take place in this type of social setting because although an individual’s attitude may have changed towards the homeless, they may not have the desire to share the responsibility with others to help them.  On the other hand, social influences on a person’s attitude can be negative and include destructive or overwhelming concepts leading to poor choices in life. 

According to the encyclopedia Britannica “research on attitude changes has studied the effects of the mass media, the optimum of persuasive messages, the effects of motivational arousal, and the role of opinion leaders (e.g., teachers and ministers).”  This article also states that” research has been carried out into the origin, functioning, and change of particular attitudes (e.g., racial, international, political, and religious), each of which is affected by special factors.  Attitudes towards racial minority groups, for example, are affected by social conditions, such as local housing, employment, and the political situation; political attitudes are affected by social class and age; and religious attitudes and belief strongly reflect such factors as inner personality conflict ("Social Psychology," 2013).”

According to an article I read on social influences on human behavior it is said that “from the beginning of our lives, the first social influences that we encounter belong to the family unit.  Whether it is your mother, father, brother or sister, families often provide the closet social influence of any other group.  As we grow into independent thinkers and move toward adulthood, these influences may loosen or change, but it is our families that shape our behaviors and actions from the start.  Values, attitudes and morals are all functions of the family social structure and may greatly impact what we do and how we do it (Social Influences on Human Behavior, 2013).”  I believe that information to be very true because our families are the first people we engage with socially before venturing out into the real world.  That is why it is very important to teach children at a young age good values, morals and beliefs even though they will eventually develop their own.

Peer pressure is “a social influence most commonly found in teen or school society when young teens are developing into a more independent person and attempting to break away from the family structure” (Social Influences on Human Behavior, 2013).  Peer pressure is the influence used by other people close in age to encourage an individual to change their attitudes, values or behaviors in order to conform to the group norm.  Peer pressure can have a positive effect on an individual if the behaviors they are surrounded by push the teen into new experiences such as academic clubs or sports (Social Influences on Human Behavior, 2013).  However, peer pressure can have a negative effect on teen behaviors when they are engaging in dangerous activities which could eventually lead to them hurting themselves by abusing drugs, someone hurting them or getting into trouble by engaging in criminal activities.

To sum it all up it is safe for me to say that I am in complete agreement with Gerald Schueler when he states “that society influences the behavior of its members in many ways.  It can pass laws through governmental institutions, creating severe punishments for particular antisocial behaviors.  It can develop a strong desire for ethics and morals, usually through religious institutions.  It can hold its professionals to strong ethical codes of conduct.  It can educate and inform through its school systems and media outlets.  But the primary reason why society can control the behavior of most its citizens is our inherent psychological need for psychic growth and maturity.  Whether we call it self-actualization or individuation, there seems to be a natural inclination within the human psyche to behave in a moral or ethical manner (Schueler Ph.D., 1997).”

References

Fritz, J. (2010). Socialization. Encyclopedia of Identity (242), 754-756. Doi:10.4135/9781412979304

Schueler Ph.D., G. (1997). Social Influences on Behavior. Retrieved from http://www.schuelers.com/psychology/HS813.htm

Social Influences on Human Behavior. (2013). eHow. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/info_8510709_social-influences-human-behavior.html#ixzz2LIETX2U3

Social Psychology. (2013). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551358/social-psychology

Stavrositu, C. (2011). Social Influence. Encyclopedia of social networks, 326, 789-792. Doi:10.4135/9781412994170

Strauss, B. (2001). Social facilitation in motor tasks: a review of research and theory. Psychology of sport and exercise, 237-256. Doi:10.1016/S1469-0292(01)0019-x

Life Span Development and Personality of Whitney Houston

Life Span Development and Personality of Whitney Houston

Whitney Elizabeth Houston was born August 9, 1963 in Newark, New Jersey to Army serviceman and entertainment executive John Russell Houston Jr. and gospel singer Emily Drinkard Houston who we know as Cissy Houston.  Whitney has two older brothers Gary Garland, who is also a singer and Michael Houston.  According to the Biography Channel website it was said that Whitney Houston almost seemed destined from birth to become a singer (Whitney Houston, 2013). Her mother Cissy Houston, Cousin Dionne Warwick, and godmother Aretha Franklin were all legendary figures in American gospel and soul music.    Whitney was raised a Baptist, but was also exposed to the Pentecostal church.  When Whitney was four years old her family moved to a middle-class area in East Orange, New Jersey.  She met Aretha Franklin when she was eight years old at a recording studio and at the age of 11 Whitney started performing as a soloist in the junior gospel choir at New Hope Baptist Church in Newark, New Jersey where her mother was the choir minister.  She also learned to play the piano at New Hope Baptist Church.  Even as a child, Whitney was able to wow audiences; she later told interviewer Diane Sawyer that a rapturous response from the congregation at New Hope had a powerful effect upon her: “I think I knew then that [my singing ability] was an infectious thing that God had given me (Whitney Houston, 2013).”

Whitney’s first solo performance was in church where she sang “Guide Me, O Though Great Jehovah ("Whitney Houston," 1986).”  As a teenager Whitney attended Mount Saint Dominic Academy, a catholic girls’ high school in Caldwell, New Jersey where she met her best friend Robyn Crawford.  While still in school Cissy continued to teach Whitney how to sing by having her not only sing in the church choir but she also sang back up at Cissy’s shows in various clubs throughout the New York area.  After one performance at Carnegie Hall, a photographer spotted Whitney and referred her to a newly established modeling company named click.  Whitney signed on with Click and then moved on to Wilhelmina where they managed to have her appear in magazines like Vogue and become one of the first African-American females to appear on the cover of Seventeen ("The Soul of Whitney," 2008).  After graduating high school Whitney continued to model and sung back up for Lou Rawls and Chaka Khan before Clive Davis spotted her at a Manhattan showcase and signed her to a record deal at the tender age of 19 years old.

Whitney Houston was raised in a family of notable figures in the gospel, rhythm and blues, pop and soul genres like Dionne Warwick, Dee Dee Warwick, Darlene Love and Aretha Franklin, which in my opinion was the biggest influence on her decision to want to sing.  Whitney tried a modeling career and was great at it but her passion was in music.  In a rolling stone interview Whitney recollected a memory of when she use to hear her mother sing around the house and in church, she stated that her mother would always say to her “ If you don’t feel it, then don’t mess with it, because it’s a waste of time.”  In that very same interview Whitney also stated that when she watched her mother sing in church, “that feeling, that soul, that thing—it’s like electricity rolling through you.  If you ever been in a Baptist or a Pentecostal church, when the Holy Spirit starts to roll and people start to rally feel what they are doing, it’s…it’s incredible.  That’s what I want (Whitney Houston, 2013).”

The environment that Whitney was exposed to at a very young age on a regular basis helped Whitney identify with what she wanted to do with her life.  Whitney enjoyed accompanying her mother to shows and singing back-up which also helped influence her decision to be in the music industry.  Whitney’s musical intelligence and her daily observation of how her mother Cissy, Dionne and Aretha worked their way through their musical careers also played a major role in her career excelling because she was paying very close attention to everything.  I also believe that Cissy’s Houston guidance and Whitney’s passion for music and determination helped Whitney’s career excel at an early age making her a dynamic singer and performer.

Whitney had an amazing support system throughout her career within her family.  Her family worked for her and with her well before she formed her very own Management Company named Nippy Inc., which was a nickname that was given to her by her father John Houston who ran the company, it was a cartoon character that constantly got into trouble (Top ten things you should know about Whitney Houston, 2012).

According to the article top ten things you should know about Whitney Houston, “Houston loved nothing more than hanging at home with her husband, she loved to vacuum –because she liked immediate results –and her husband loved to cook.  Left to themselves, they wanted to be a fully functioning family.”  In that very same article the interviewer stated that “Whitney was someone who wanted to be normal and just go for a slice of pizza at a place she liked near her home in New Jersey, but wound up eating it in her car.  The eyes on her were too much,” the former associate said.

Whitney Houston was internationally known as a “mega-celebrity” to everyone but people forgot that she was human and dealt with many struggles in her life.  Whitney loved to sing, music was her passion but the fame that came with her talent was very overwhelming.  In my opinion I believe the fact that Whitney could not live a normal life caused her a great deal of pain.  She knew that everyone loved her music because the charts displayed that but did they love her as a person was a question she probably struggled with. Every little thing Whitney did out of the ordinary was put on display and I believe the fact that her life was under a microscope is what made her so unhappy in life. 

The early allegations of her having a lesbian affair with her best friend Robyn Crawford who was also her manager nearly destroyed their friendship ("The Soul of Whitney," 2008).  Although Whitney professed to not care what others thought, it had to have some type of negative impact on her psychologically.  The allegations of her drug abuse were a definite indication of Whitney wanting to escape the reality of her not having the normal life she wanted so badly.

According to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical theory of personality, personality is composed of three elements.  These three elements are known as the id, the ego and the superego.  In what I have learned of Whitney Houston I believe her id was driven by her music but she struggled within herself dealing with her ego.  The ego is the component that is responsible for dealing with reality.  According to Freud the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world (Cherry, 2013).  I personally do not believe that Whitney Houston ego allowed her to deal with the reality that although she was human like everyone else, people were going to hold her in a different light because of her superstardom. 

References

Cherry, K. (2013). The Structural Model of Personality. Retrieved from http://www.about.com

The Soul of Whitney. (2008). Essence Magazine, 2023(2), , 23.

Top ten things you should know about Whitney Houston. (2012). abc news. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/10-things-whitney-houston

Whitney Houston. (1986). Jet, 1(00215996), , 59.

Whitney Houston. (2013). Rolling Stone. Retrieved from http://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/whitney-houston/biography

Whitney Houston. (2013). The Biography Channel. Retrieved from http://www.biography.com/people/whitney-houston-9344818

Phobias and Addictions

Phobias and Addictions

  According to the Penguin Dictionary of Psychology "Classical Conditioning is an experimental procedure in which conditioned stimulus (CS) that is, at the outset, neutral with respect to the unconditioned response (UR) is paired with unconditioned stimulus (US) that reliably elicits the unconditioned response.  After a number of such pairings the CS will elicit, by itself, a conditioned response (CR) very much like UR" (Classical Conditioning, 2009).  Classical conditioning was developed by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov while he was studying the digestive system in dogs.   

While Studying the digestive systems in dogs, Pavlov leashed his dogs in a harness and placed food in their mouths, after which he measured the saliva flow through a tube inserted into their cheeks. After several repetitions, Pavlov observed that his dogs started to salivate before the food was placed in their mouths. They would salivate merely by seeing the assistant in charge of bringing the food or listening to his footsteps approaching the cage. Pavlov realized that the dogs had learned to anticipate the food and to associate the food with, for example, the sound of approaching footsteps. Pavlov called the saliva “the unconditioned response (UR) because it is a reflex naturally triggered by food, which he called the unconditioned stimulus (US). He then introduced a bell ring as a neutral stimulus and repeatedly rang the bell before presenting the food to the dogs. After several repetitions, the dogs were conditioned to salivate to the sound of the ring alone. The bell then became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation a conditioned response (CR). After this simple experiment, researchers started to condition different types of animals as well as humans to react to a variety of neutral stimuli. Classical conditioning often takes place without awareness” (Sullivan, 2009).  The Classical Conditioning theory was developed based of his observation suggesting that the salivation was a learned response.

Classical conditioning procedures can lead to certain phobias in individuals.  According to the Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine “a phobia is an intense but unrealistic fear that interferes with the ability to socialize, work or go about everyday life, brought on by and object, event or situation” (Turkingston, Frey,  & Davidson, 2011) .  A phobia is a fear that is so excessive that the amount of fear is not justified by the cause.  Phobias are developed through classical conditioning procedure when one person is presented with a stimulus that changes or confuses the original reflexive response to the original stimulus and create a sense of fear in their mind.

Many people will develop some type of phobia at some point in their life.  Some phobias may eventually go away and some people will just live with them until they begin to severely disrupt their life.  There are two very common phobias, acrophobia which is the fear of heights and claustrophobia the fear of cramped spaces.

Acrophobia seems to be at least to some extent deep-rooted as a developmental mechanism for some people.  However, most individuals use caution but are not extremely afraid of heights.  In my opinion Acrophobia is a learned response to an incident that may have happened to someone in the past like a child falling off a jungle gym in the playground.

In an epidemiological study conducted by Agras et al. (1969), 12.4% of those surveyed had a fear of heights—ranging from an intense fear at elevations to a phobia (disruption of everyday functioning because of fear and avoidance). Some can handle heights, although they are clearly distressed, whereas others experience such intense fear that height situations must be avoided altogether.  Imagine a person not being able to go to a physician if his office is on the 5th floor, not taking a job because the office is on the 10th floor, or not visiting friends who move into an apartment three stories up (Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2005).

According to Mosby’s Dictionary of Medicine, “Claustrophobia is a morbid fear of being in or becoming trapped in enclosed or narrow places” (Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, & Health Professions, s.v, 2009).  Claustrophobia is one of the most common phobias that involve extreme fear from being in a cramped space which may result in a panic attack.  Claustrophobia can develop in childhood years after being trapped in a small space either from playing a game or being punished.  In adulthood claustrophobia can develop in the same manner of being trapped in a cramped space for a long period of time.  When individuals have these types of experiences they often experience a panic attack which conditions the brain to relate cramp spaces with being afraid and losing control.

Operant conditioning developed by an American psychologist B.F. Skinner focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors by applying rewards or punishment after a behavior.  During this procedure a relationship is developed between the behavior and the consequences for that behavior.  There are four possible consequences to a behavior that cause operant conditioning.  Something good can start or be presented, something good can end or be taken away, something bad can start or be presented, something bad can end or be taken away.   This the type of learning that is related to addiction.  Individuals have a natural survival mechanism in place called the pleasure/pain response system which allows them to feel pleasure when doing something necessary for survival and pain when doing something that could lessen the chances of survival.  When a person uses a drug they are often putting themselves through the both the pleasure and the pain response modes of operant learning. When the drug is initially taken the user feels pleasure and this is embedded in the brain.  Then the user will experience the pain and sickness from withdrawing from the substance that will also be embedded in the brain.  The user will attempt to achieve the same pleasure again while trying to avoid the withdrawal symptoms.  This is the way addiction works.

The difference between classical and operant conditioning is the emphasis on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary.  Classical conditioning involves developing a relationship between and involuntary response and a stimulus, whereas operant conditioning is about developing a relationship between a voluntary behavior and a reward or consequence.  Operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished whereas classical conditioning is a learned reflex.

When a conditioned response or behavior slowly decreases over time and eventually stop it becomes extinct.  Extinction occurs because the behavior is no longer reinforced.  Reinforcement of a response or behavior is the method that is either intentionally or unintentionally recognized by the subject to be the positive result of the stimuli or behavior.

For example, in Pavlov’s study where when the dog heard a bell every time and food was presented food it started to salivate just at the sound of the bell, which is classical conditioning. However, if food is not presented with the bell several times, then the dog's salivation will decrease and eventually stop at the sound of the bell. In this example, the food is the unconditioned stimulus, salivation is the unconditioned response, the bell is the neutral stimulus that becomes the conditioned stimulus and the ceasing of the dog to salivate because the food is no longer presented with the bell is extinction.

Extinction also occurs in operant conditioning when a behavior is no longer reinforced or the mode of reinforcement has become unwanted to the subject. For example, a child is showing improvements in school performance. The parent of the child rewards this behavior with a cookie at the end of each good day. The child continues to show improvements knowing that the cookie is waiting at the end of the day, but eventually the child gets tired of receiving a cookie every day and begins to slack in school. This is extinction related to operant conditioning. However, extinction does not mean that the subject goes back to the way they were before the conditioning started. After a few days of poor performance and no cookie, the child may start wanting the cookie again and begin to do very well in school. This is called spontaneous recovery.

  

References

Classical Conditioning. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/entry/penguinpsyc/classical_conditioning

Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, & Health Professions, s.v. (2009). Claustrophobia. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/entry/ehsmosbymed/claustrophobia    

Sullivan, L. (2009). The Sage Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.

Turkingston, C., Frey, R., & Davidson, T. (2011). The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Detroit, MI: Laurie Fundukian.

Wiederhold, K. B., & Wiederhold, D. M. (2005). Acrophobia. Virtual reality therapy for anxiety disorders: Advances in evaluation and treatment, 157-164. doi:10.1037/10858-014

Foundations of Psychology

Foundations of Psychology

Psychology is the study of human nature.  Psychologist study the human mind and behavior to figure out why people think, feel and do the things that they do.  Psychologist observe individuals, ask questions, develop theories and conduct experiments to get a better understanding of human nature and help improve the lives of individuals.  There are four major schools of thought in psychology that focus on how the mind works but in different ways.

The first psychological school of thought structuralism was founded by Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and mainly identified with Edward B. Titchener. The Encyclopedia Britannica explains that “Structuralism sought to analyze the adult mind (defined as the sum total experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find the way in which these components fit together in complex forms (Structuralism 2013).”    Structuralism focus is primarily on the structure of the mind which involves studying the consciousness of people. In my opinion I believe that structuralism mainly involves studying what goes on inside someone’s mind to determine why they may behave in a certain way.

In response to the Structuralism a well-known psychologist William James developed a school of thought Functionalism which called for psychologist to focus on the functions of human behavior. According to the Encyclopedia of Anthropology “Functionalism primary focus was on social evolution and the quest for origins of social institutions and cultural traits, as well as those focused on the spread or diffusion of these institutions and cultural traits (West, 2006) .”  In functionalism psychologist are encouraged not only to study an individual’s mind but also focus on their surroundings and how they may contribute to their behavior by looking for connections between things that happened in their life and the type of behavior being acted out.   

Structuralism and Functionalism raised many questions among psychologist because of the lack of reliability and agreement that concluded from the studies. According to an article in Psychological Review Watson asserted “that neither Structuralism nor Functionalism was effective as a science and that the time had come for psychology to take its place as a legitimate natural science (Watson, 1913).” Watson believed that it could do so by discarding its long-standing concern with conscious mental functioning as a subject matter and introspection as a method.  In Watson’s views, mental life as traditionally conceived simply did not exist.  Rather, psychology should embrace behavior as its subject matter and rely on experimental observation of that subject matter as its method.  He called his viewpoint Behaviorism, another school of thought. (Moore, 2011)

The school of thought Behaviorism focus is primarily on the behavior of an individual and it is believed that the psychological concepts of an individual such as their personality, learning and emotion can only be explained in terms of observed behaviors that respond to some type of stimulus.  Behaviorist believes that in order to fully understand people you need to observe what happens to them and see how they respond.

Sigmund Freud developed the Psychoanalysis school of thought a method of talk therapy for mental, emotional and behavioral dysfunctions which believes that human behavior is caused by the unconscious mind.  According to the Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine “Psychoanalysis is classified as an insight-oriented rather than a supportive form of therapy, because it is based on the notion that people are better able to make changes in their lives when they have improved their understanding of themselves through identifying their assumptions about life and the early life experiences that gave rise to them (Frey, 2011).”

Psychoanalysis interprets behaviors to be motivated by overwhelming mental conflicts suppressed in the subconscious of the mind.  The purpose of psychoanalysis is to help people move forward in their lives by resolving inner conflicts leading to a range of mental and emotional problems (Frey, 2011). The Psychoanalysis method is when the psychologist helps and individual understand themselves through analyzing deeply hidden feelings, past and present relationships, and experiences they have had that may be a contributing factor to their behavior.  

The major schools of thought are linked to the primary biological foundations in psychology because they all in some degree focus on mental processes which involve behavior that is controlled by the brain.  The biological foundations look to the body to explain the mind.  The influences of hormones, genes, the brain, and the central nervous system on the way we think, feel and act are the primary foundations in psychology.

The biological make-up of an individual plays an important role in their behavior.  The brain controls behaviors and mental processes.  According to Santrock, “The evolutionary psychology approach, which emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection in explaining psychology, considers how the human nervous system has evolved to its complex present state. Most scientists believe that behavior is determined by the interaction of the environment and the organism's biological inheritance (McGraw-Hill, 2005).”

The biological foundations of behavior article also states that “The nervous system is made up of interconnected nerve cells that transmit information throughout the body. There are four defining characteristic of the nervous system: (1) it communicates via electrochemical transmission, (2) it is characterized by its complexity, as the brain alone is composed of billions of nerve cells, (3) it can integrate information from many sources and create a coherent psychological experience, and (4) it has a great capacity to adapt to changes in the environment and the body. The capacity of the brain to adapt is termed plasticity.  (McGraw-Hill, 2005) ”

 References

Frey, R. J. (2011). Psychoanalysis, the Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine (4th Ed.). Detroit, MI: Laurie J. Fundukian.

Moore, J. (2011). Behaviorism, The Psychological Record (3rd Ed.). Gambier: The Psychological Record.

Structuralism (2013). www.britannica.com. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/569652/structuralism.

West, B. (2006). Encyclopedia of Anthropology (Rev ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.

McGraw-Hill. (2005). The Biological Foundations of Behavior. Retrieved from http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072937769/student_view0/chapter3/