Critical Thinking in Psychology

Autism can be defined as “a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairment in emotional expression and recognition, difficulty with social relationships, delayed and/or abnormal language and communication, and preoccupation with repetitive, stereotyped behaviors or interests” (Slaughter, 2016).  The exact cause of autism is not known; however extensive research has determined that it is “caused by an abnormality in the development of the brain” (Autism, 2016) and has nothing to do with parental and/or environmental influences which is why early intervention is necessary.  Early detection of autism allows medical providers to establish intervention techniques to improve communication abilities and social skills which is why research was conducted to study the age of recognition of symptoms and their correlates in children that were diagnosed.  My current position as a Behavior Technician working with young children diagnosed with autism prompted the selection of this topic so a better understanding can be established on the importance of early intervention.

Summary of the Article

Literature Review

            The peer-reviewed article that I selected was featured in The Journal of Indian Association for Child & Adolescent Mental Health in which a study was conducted using records retrieved from a health care center located in India “to find the age of recognition (AOR) of symptoms by parent and delay in diagnosis and seeking professional help in children with autism” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 1).  The purpose of the study was to provide evidence that supports the belief that early detection and intervention of autism “can significantly improve the social and communication abilities in children” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 1).  The focus of the research was to demonstrate the need for “more awareness about ASD to be spread among general population; the need for proper training amongst health care professionals for diagnosis ASD and adequate referral mechanism; and, monitoring the development of child should be mainstreamed into primary health care services for early diagnosis and intervention” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016).

Methods Section

            The first step to conducting the study was submitting a proposal to the Investigation Review Board detailing the purpose of the research.  Once the proposal was approved researchers collected data from case records located in several different locations in India, one being the Child Guidance Clinic of Department of Psychiatry.  Researchers selected case records from fifty children diagnosed with autism between 2007-2013 and excluded the case records of “children with intellectual disability with autistic features as primary diagnosis” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 1).  The study was conducted over a three-month period in which information was retrieved from case records pertaining to the age autism was detected, symptoms, pregnancy complications, birth and developmental history.  After the information from the case records was compiled together it had to be measured and researchers used “non-parametric test such as Kruskal-Wallis test, and multiple regression analysis was applied using SPSS 16.0” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 296).

Results Section

            The data collected during the study identified fifty patients that were diagnosed with Autism in which “82% were male and 18% were female which corresponds to the male: female ratio of nearly 4:1 as stated by study done by Indring et al which was a record-linkage study done in Sweden” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 296).  Early detection was a key factor to the study which is why age of recognition was taken from each record and that information determined that parents normally recognize symptoms of autism around three years and six months and the average age of diagnosis was six years and six months. Researchers examined each record for pregnancy related complications to determine if there was a relation between those complications and autism and of those records only 36% identified pregnancy related complications such as “hypoxia, meconium stained liquor, torsion of the neck and delayed labor” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 298).  Prior abortions, intellectual disability, family history of mental illness and medical complications were other categories that data was collected.  A decrease in social interactions was the most common symptom that was noticed by parents first and the study retrieved that information from 32% of the cases.  Delayed speech was the most common symptom noticed by parents in a previous study, however only 26% of the cases noted that as the first noticeable symptom.  The information retrieved was categorized by symptoms that were present in women that displayed pregnancy related complications and concluded that there is no solid evidence that “pregnancy related complications, medical complications, intellectual disability and behavioral problems during childhood are independent risk factors for autism” (Bagal, Kadam, & Parkar, 2016, p. 303) and that further research is needed to make a final determination.

Discussion Section

            The data collected examined children that were diagnosed with autism and the information in each case was separated into categories to generate statistical information that was used to determine the relation between the age of recognition and symptoms as they relate to pregnancy complications. Information pertaining to pregnancy complications, medical complications and family history of mental illness was retrieved from the records to establish risk factors, however the data collected did not establish if those risk factors were independent variables or not.  The data collected also included symptoms and when they were first noticed by parents to support the main reason for the study which was the importance of early detection in relation to intervention.

Conclusion Section

            The age of recognition in symptoms in children diagnosed with autism was studied in detailed to provide information that can support claims on the importance of spreading awareness.  The exact cause of autism has yet to be determined, however many studies have been conducted to determine possible risk factors to increase awareness in pregnant women that may be subjected to these factors such as pregnancy related complications.  Pregnancy related complications resulted in early detection of autism which made early intervention possible, however in cases where pregnancy related complications were not a factor, detection of autism was detected a later age.

Analysis of the Article

Strengths

            The purpose of the study was to demonstrate the need to increase awareness on autism in communities in India so parents, particularly women of child bearing age would understand the risk factors and receive adequate care during pregnancy and follow-up care and evaluations after the child is born and the article detailed supporting facts of this claim.  Age of recognition was the main supporting fact in which the article showed the importance of prenatal care as it relates to pregnancy related complications and symptoms of autism.  Researchers used information from the records obtained from the clinic as supporting evidence by creating groups based on symptoms and when they were noticed in which pregnancy related complications were present and not present. This information allowed the researchers to further their discussion on why increased awareness and education on autism is important.

Weaknesses

            The study was conducted using only fifty records of individuals diagnosed with autism and although the article demonstrated the necessity of increased awareness, fifty cases only laid the groundwork and established evidence that supports the claim. 

Reflections

Supported Opinions

            Pregnancy related complications have been directly related to many birth defects, however autism is partially excluded from that claim and I personally believe that because autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder it is possible that pregnancy related complications can be a contributing factor.  Prenatal care is extremely important during pregnancy because it allows health care providers to monitor the pregnancy for any problems that may arise.  Health-related problems during pregnancy can affect the fetus which can result in birth defects.  Pregnancy related complications often results in the birth of a child through C-section instead of vaginally and several studies have been conducted to determine the relation between the two.  There was a study conducted in which research demonstrated that “neonates delivered by C-section with general anesthesia were associated with a higher incidence of autism than neonates delivered vaginally or those delivered by C-section with regional anesthesia” (Chien, Lin, Shao, Chiou, & Chiou, 2015).

 Standards Check

The information provided in the article was retrieved from case records of children diagnosed with autism therefore accuracy was determined.  The information was relevant to the study because the research was to determine the importance of early recognition and the age of recognition and age of diagnosis was retrieved from the case records.  There was great depth in the information provided because the study not only focused on the age of recognition and diagnosis, but also symptoms related to autism and how they correlate with pregnancy related complications.

Conclusion

When I first began my position as a Behavior Technician I was paired with young children diagnosed with autism in a pre-school setting and it was unclear to me as to why behavior modification was so important at this early stage, however current studies are providing me with the opportunity to enhance my knowledge on the disorder as I gain clarity on the importance of early intervention.  The article demonstrated the importance of early detection, recording background information, symptoms and family history as key factors to the claim of the importance of increased awareness in the communities. Research studies are continuously being conducted on autism and the information obtained from this article is the beginning of research efforts that will better assist the development of behavior modification skills for children with autism.

References

Autism. (2016). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.

Bagal, R., Kadam, K., & Parkar, S. (2016). To study the age of recognition of symptoms and their correlates in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders: A retrospective study. Journal Of indian Association For Child & Adolescent Mental health, 12(4), 291-308.

Chien, L., Lin, H., Shao, Y., Chiou, S., & Chiou, H. (2015). Risk of Autism Associated with General Anesthesia During Cesarean Delivery: A Population-Based Birth-Cohort Analysis. Journal Of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 45(4), 932-942. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2247-y

Slaughter, V. P. (2016). Autism. Magill's Medical Guide (Online Edition).

Drug Free Workplace

Instituting a drug-free workplace along with mandatory drug testing for new hires can be costly for the business, however drug use and abuse can also be costly as well due to absenteeism, accidents, downtime, turnover, theft, morale, and loss productivity.  According to the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, Inc.  “Drug Abuse has an estimated cost of $81 billion annually” and implementing a drug-free workplace can help cut down on that cost.  Absenteeism is considered one of the major problems associated with drug abuse at the workplace because it has a direct effect on productivity and “it also compromises employee safety because workers who lack familiarity with procedures and work environments and who substitute for absent employees, put themselves at greater risk for accidents than workers who are not absent (Goodman & Garber, 1988)” as quoted in (McFarlin, 2001).  Accidents are more likely to occur when employees’ abuse drugs because of the effects that drugs have on the human brain individuals that are under the influence will have difficulties concentrating on their job that can result in mistakes that can be detrimental.  Drug abuse can “kill and/or damage brain cells” ("Drugs change your brain," 2003) making it very difficult for an individuals to function normally at the workplace which could directly impact productivity because they are having difficulties understanding the functions of the job which can result in increased downtime because individuals will try their best to avoid actually doing the work.  The turnover rate increases because many people that abuse drugs have a difficult time maintaining employment because they are more focused on their addiction so if employers require mandatory drug testing that it is possible to cut down on the turnover rate along with absenteeism and productivity.  Theft is a major problem in all organizations for many different reasons, however it can be more of a problem with drug abusers because they may not have the funds to feed their addiction so they will steal from their employer.  The morale of the company “refers to employees’ shared attitudes toward identification with the elements of their job, working conditions, fellow workers, supervisors, and general management” (Crossley, 2007) and if drug abuse is present in the workplace it could bring down the morale of the company due to conflict that could arise amongst employees. The morale of the company is extremely important because it provides employees with a source of encouragement, therefore instituting mandatory drug-testing can help boost the morale by showing the employees that the company is concerned about their well-being.

References

Crossley, C. (2007). Morale. Encyclopedia of industrial organizational psychology. doi:10.4135/9781412952651.n187

Drugs change your brain. (2003). Scholastic Scope. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212896098?accountid=35812

French, M. T., Zarkin, G. A., & Dunlap, L. J. (1998). Illicit drug use, absenteeism, and earnings at six U.S. worksites. Contemporary Economic. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/274198853?accountid=35812

McFarlin, S. K. (2001). The relationship between workplace absenteeism and alcohol use: A day-to-day examination. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304736633?accountid=35812

Past and Current Trends

Drug abuse is “ the harmful or risky use of legal or illegal drugs or the use of legal drugs in a manner or amount inconsistent with medical advice” (Bedi & Duff, 2008)  and has become an increasing problem in the United States over the past few decades due to the development of so many different illicit drugs.  This paper will identify past and current trends of the use and abuse of substances in the United States as well as discuss when the use of illicit drugs may be considered culturally appropriate and analyze health and social problems in the United States that occur due to drug abuse and addiction.

Past and Current Trends

The use of illicit drugs such as opium, marijuana and cocaine have been around since the beginning of time and were mostly used for religious and medical purposes and there was no knowledge of the effects these drugs would have on the mind and/or body therefore individuals during the earlier times were unaware that the use of these drugs would become habit-forming.  Morphine is “the active ingredient in opium” (Levinthal, 2012 p.10) and is used as a pain reliever as it was in earlier times, however it has the potential to be addictive like many other drugs.  Cocaine is “extracted from coca leaves and was used as a stimulant and antidepressant” (Levinthal, 2012 p.10) in earlier times, however at some point in time it began being used for recreational purposed and soon became illegal.  Many drugs that were developed in earlier times for medical and religious purposes eventually became known as bad because they became illegal and most people made efforts to not have any association with such drugs like cocaine, heroin and marijuana because of the negative perception.

As time went on there was still a negative perception of many drugs especially once congress created the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) in 1974 which “is the federal focal point for research on drug abuse and addiction” (Costello & Vleck, 2009) and provided a way to keep track of drug use in the United States so that research could be done to try and decrease drug problems to prevent national epidemics.  With the National Institute on Drug Abuse being created it allowed statistics to be developed based on what types of drugs are commonly used and by whom.  According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse “Marijuana is the most widely used illicit substance in this country.  In 2003, 14.6 million people were current users of marijuana” (Costello & Vleck, 2009).  The use of marijuana has become accepted in society unlike other drugs because many people believe that it is created from a natural plant that will not cause any harm to the human mind and/or body, which is not true because all illicit drugs have some type of negative effect on the human mind and body.

When Illicit Drugs May Be Considered Culturally Appropriate

Many illicit drugs were accidentally discovered because doctors were looking for different methods to treat their patients, therefore illicit drugs were considered appropriate for medical purposes in earlier times.  Once practice in which illicit drugs are considered culturally appropriate is shamanism which is “the philosophy and practice of healing in which diagnosis or treatment is based on trance-like states, on the part of either the healer or the patient induced by hallucinogenic drugs” (Levinthal, 2012 p. 9).  Cocaine comes from “the coca plant and is indigenous to the Andes region of South America, and has been used by indigenous cultures in that area for thousands of years for the benefit of increased endurance and medical purposes” (Johnson, 2011). Glaucoma is considered to be the second leading cause of blindness in the United States and research has discovered that marijuana helps “eases the pressure behind the eye, which causes blindness in glaucoma sufferers” (Weale, 1994) therefore debates have been issued in many states on legalizing marijuana for medical purposes. 

Health and Social Problems due to drug abuse

Illicit drugs have the ability to change an individual’s consciousness, mood, senses, and/or thought processes which can ultimately result in drug abuse “from the complex physiological and psychological interactions of the substance” (Schlaefer, 2008).  According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse “researchers have found a connection between the abuse of tobacco, cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy, amphetamines, and steroids and the development of cardiovascular diseases” (Costello & Vleck, 2009).  HIV/ Aids is another health problem associated with drug abuse when individual are using needles to inject drugs because often they are sharing contaminated needles. 

There are several social problems associated with drug abuse such as isolation because many drug abusers tend to separate themselves from everyone.  Violence is also another social problem according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse “at least half of the individuals arrested for major crimes including homicide, theft, and assault were under the influence of illicit drugs around the time of their arrest” (Costello & Vleck, 2009).  Along with violence, sexual abuse, child abuse and driving under the influence are social problems associated with drug abuse that can be detrimental to the health and well-being of individuals.

Conclusion

Drug use has been present since the beginning of time although many of the discoveries were accidental because doctors were trying to develop treatments for their patients or individuals were curious about certain plants as they “observed the unusual behavior of animals that fed on those plants” (Levinthal, 2012 p.9).  As time has went on the discovery of many drugs prompted classification on drugs due to research where it was determined that many drugs are illicit when improperly used which is a form of drug abuse that is an contributing factor of many health and social problems. 

  References 

Bedi, R., & Duff, C. (2008). Drug abuse. Encyclopedia of educational psychology, 280-286. doi:10.4135/9781412963848.n77

Costello, J., & Vleck, E. (2009). National Institute on Drug Abuse. Encyclopedia of substance abuse prevention, treatment, & recovery, 609-611. doi:10.4135/9781412964500.n214

Johnson, M. W. (2011). Cocaine. Encyclopedia of Drug Policy. doi:10.4135/9781412976961

Levinthal, C. F. (2012). Drugs, behavior, and modern society (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Schlaefer, K. (2008). Drug abuse. Encyclopedia of global health, 561-565. doi:10.4135/9781412963855.n381

Weale, S. (1994). Home office bans medicinal cannabis glaucoma sufferer says marijuana saved his sight. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/293452099?accountid=458

Workplace Motivation

Workplace Motivation

The driven force that is responsible for why an individual may perform certain activities is known as motivation which is “generally defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal” (Ran, 2009).  Individual’s get up and go to work every day for many reasons, however financial gain is the main reason for most people, which is extrinsic motivation.  Money is a form of extrinsic motivation for many people to hold certain jobs; however when it comes to the workplace, motivation is extremely important because many organizations rely on high levels of productivity from their employees to increase revenue.  This paper will examine how various motivational strategies affect productivity in the HVAC sales industry by explaining organizational efforts to improve performance, employees’ resistance to increasing productivity and the management’s philosophy of motivation and its practices.  In addition to that this paper will analyze the implications of applying any two motivational theories not currently in practice at this place of business and identify how these theories would affect management and employees.

Workplace motivational theories

While working in the HVAC sales industry I worked with many different people with different personality types that would suggest a need for different types of motivational strategies.  The company that I worked for had a relatively small staff that included inside salespeople, outside salespeople, warehouse workers, and office personnel. With different expectations being set for each department, it would be beneficial for management to apply different motivational strategies to increase not only productivity by the level of morale within the company.

Inside salespeople have the most important job at the company in my opinion because they generate the revenue because they are responsible for handling all transactions that involve the customers in person and over the phone, which can be very stressful if other problems arise in other departments such as the warehouse which is responsible for shipping and receiving merchandise.  There are no motivational strategies currently in place for employees; however I believe that the goal setting theory would be applicable for inside and outside sales personnel.  In order for the company to be successful and maintain their staff they have to bring in a certain amount of revenue and if the goal setting theory of motivation was in place, which is a “theory of motivation that states that specific and challenging goals are claimed to lead to higher performance” ("Goal-setting theory," 2003), management would give sales personnel “a clear sense of purpose and direction that provide something for which to strive and ultimately attain” ("Goal-setting theory," 2003).

The warehouse employees are responsible for shipping and receiving merchandise as well as making sure items are put in the correct location within the warehouse.  If an error occurs within the warehouse it will have an adverse effect on sales.  I can see the goal setting theory being applicable for warehouse personnel, however I think the achievement motivation is more suitable because it is “the need for success or attainment of excellence” (Sisk, 2009) in which making sure that customers receive the correct orders in a timely fashion increases productivity.

Office personnel responsibilities include maintaining customers’ accounts to ensure that addresses, telephone numbers and contact information is accurate and up to date as well as bills are being paid.  In addition to maintaining customer accounts they are also responsible for making sure that the merchandise that we receive is paid for.  The responsibilities of the office personnel can be very stressful at times especially if it can cause a problem within the sales department which is why I believe that the stress and coping motivational theory is applicable. How office personnel handle certain situations that involve customers is known as coping which “refers to the thoughts and behaviors that people use to deal with stressful situations” (Tennen, 2007).

Organizational efforts to improve performance

The success of the company relies completely on employee productivity, specifically in sales and if there are problems in the warehouse or with office personnel with customers’ orders or accounts it will have an adverse effect on sales, therefore it is very important for management to implement plans and strategies to improve performance which can be done in several steps.  The first step is effective communication in which management communicate their expectations and stress the importance of personal accountability to their employees.  Employees should never have to assume what is expected of them it should be communicated to them so there are no misunderstandings.  Employee evaluations is another way to improve performance because it allows management to communicate with employees their strengths and weaknesses within their job performance.  In addition to employee evaluations, employee recognition, such as employee of the month or similar acknowledgments, promotions and bonuses is also a way to improve performance because many people thrive off of being noticed for their hard work.

Employees’ resistance to increase productivity

It is very important to develop organizational efforts to improve performance because when employees performance improve it can result in productivity increasing; however if there are changes that have to occur within the organization many employees may show some resistance because they may not fully understand the advantages of the changes being made, how the changes will affect them and they may also be concerned about achieving the responsibilities set forth due to the changes that are occurring.  The goal-setting theory is the best way to offset employee resistance to increase productivity because employers need to effectively communicate with employees the goals of the company and what is expected from everyone. 

Management’s philosophy of motivation and is practices

Management philosophy is the basis for a positive work environment and effects manager’s methods to motivation.  The interaction between managers and employees affects their behavior which ultimately affects productivity.  When managers promote positivity within the workplace, employees are more than likely to be more productive.  While working in HVAC sales the environment was very hostile and the manager was very negative; however the salaries were very commensurable compared to other companies and it was not contingent on whether or not sales were made, therefore employees were not motivated to increase productivity because there were no incentives to do so. 

Implications of applying motivational theories

Motivational theories at the workplace provide explanations on what motivates individuals to perform certain ways and when applied in specific settings it helps employers understand the commitment level of their employees to the goals of the company which in turn can guide them to developing and implementing motivational strategies to increase productivity.  If motivational theories are not in place at the start of business there could be some implications once employees become accustomed to operations being ran a certain way.  Applying the goal-setting theory in an organization in which goals were never clear could cause high levels of stress on employees because they may feel like they may not be able to satisfy the expectations of the goal.  The implications of applying the achievement motivation theory could be the result of a hostile work environment due to the manager not promoting positivity through communication with employees, therefore making the desire to attain excellence difficult.

How Theories affect management and employees

The goal-setting theory affects management and employees in several different ways.  When management applies the goal-setting theory they are communicating the goals of the company with employees which rely on high levels of productivity.  If there is not a good working relationship between management and the employees, effectively communicating the goals could be a challenge for management and if the goals are not clear the employees may not have a full understanding of the expectations. 

Conclusion

Motivational theories applied at the workplace can have a direct effect on the level of productivity within an organization.  Working in HVAC sales allowed me the opportunity to understand the importance of applying motivational theories at the workplace because they provide assistance with developing organizational efforts to improve performance; however it is a possibility that employees may show some resistance to increase productivity when the communication is not clear between management and employees.  Managers that have a positive viewpoint on motivation and practice effective communication within the organization have a better chance at increasing productivity and boosting the morale of the environment. There are a several implications in applying the goal-setting theory and the achievement motivation theory within an organization that have no motivational theories in position, such as in HVAC sales, which can have an adverse effect on management and employees if effective communication is not present. 

References

Goal-setting theory. (2003). The new Penguin business dictionary. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/penguinbus/goal_setting_theory/0

Ran, B. (2009). Motivation. Encyclopedia of business in today’s world. doi:10.4135/9781412964289.n668

Sisk, D. (2009). Achievement motivation. Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. doi:10.4135/9781412971959.n7

Tennen, H. (2007). Coping. Encyclopedia of social psychology. doi:10.4135/9781412956253.n115

Motivation Concepts Analysis

                               Motivation Concepts Analysis

Motivation is the force that is mostly responsible for human behavior; it is “the intention of achieving a goal, leading to goal-directed behavior” ("Motivation," 2013).  The need to survive in this world prompts motivation in the workforce because individuals have needs that only can be met financially.  Many theories on motivation have been developed in the field of psychology to provide explanations on different levels of motivation.  This paper will examine one theory and describe how this theory would and would not be applicable if applied to two or more workplace situations based on my own personal experience.  This paper will also assess the need to develop and create new theoretical models of motivation in today’s changing work environment in the instance when the theory was not applicable to your experience.  This paper will also explain the ramifications of failing to meet or create new theoretical models of motivation and describe how theoretical models of motivation can affect personal satisfaction and productivity.  

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The study of motivation can be contributed to many philosophers in the early times that include three grand theories known as will, instinct and drive which have led to a better understanding of human motivation; however I have elected to examine Cognitive Dissonance theory which is a mini theory that will explain some of motivated behavior.   I chose Cognitive Dissonance theory because I personally believe that cognitive dissonance affects the manner in which an individual passes judgment and makes important decisions that concern morals and beliefs which ultimately takes place in the workforce. 

The Cognitive Dissonance was developed by Leon Festinger in 1957 based on his beliefs that “if an uncomfortable feeling or stress is cause by simultaneously holing two contradictory ideas (cognitions), then people will strive to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) by modifying an existing belief or by rejecting one of the two conflicting ideas” (Grigg, 2008).

Cognitive Dissonance and workplace experiences

I worked in hvac sales for well over 10 years and it was a very hostile unorganized work environment in which I experienced cognitive dissonance regularly that ultimately increased my stress level which affected my job performance on so many occasions.  As a sales representative I personally felt that professionalism was very important especially when it came to customer service; however I was the youngest and only female in sales which made it very hard to uphold my beliefs on professionalism and courtesy when I was constantly being yelled at and disrespected by fellow workers who didn’t believe that I knew enough to handle the job because I was a female and customers that would rather have a male sales representative.  There were customers that would frequent the store that no one wanted to help so most of the guys would act like they were busy and didn’t see the customer in the store or they would take their break upon arrival of that customer.  The store manager was well aware of what was being done but never addressed the issue with those that avoided certain customers which kind of made it seem like that form of behavior was acceptable and I found myself doing the same thing but I felt that it was wrong which is why I believe the cognitive dissonance theory is applicable to this situation. The feelings that I encountered while avoiding certain customers that were considered problems motivated me to change my behavior and stick to my morals and beliefs with being professional and courteous to all customers which in turn increased my productivity because it made customers want me to help them every time they visited the store.

Currently I am a school bus driver and I personally believe that cognitive dissonance theory is applicable to many situations in this position because as a school bus driver I am held to very high expectations.  Providing transportation for school-aged children is a very important task in which safety should always be considered first and because I am a parent whose children also ride the school bus I can really appreciate the importance in all of the rules and regulations that are put in place to ensure the safety of the children.  Many of the school bus drivers do not obey the speed limit which has contributed to accidents.  I am not one of those drivers because I am not in a rush to get anywhere especially when the road conditions are not so good; however there have been instances when other drivers showed aggression towards me on the road because I was not driving above the speed limit.  I believe that cognitive dissonance theory is applicable to this situation because of the uncomfortable feelings I was feeling it motivated to yield to those drivers and allow them to pass me and continue to drive at the speed limit focusing on the safety of my students first.

As a sales representative everyone was salary and there was no commission; however we did receive year-end bonuses based on the sales report that came out at the end of the year.  The salaries were pretty good so there was no incentive for anyone to want to put forth more effort to increase sales because whether equipment was sold or not everyone still received their salary.  The cognitive theory is not applicable to this situation because morals are not really in question, therefore this experience can be used to develop and create new theoretical models of motivation in today’s changing work environment.

The need to develop and create new theoretical models

Human behavior and motivation is always changing that is what makes the field of psychology very important because it provides explanations of the changes as the times change.  Changes in the economy plays a major role in motivation in the workplace which is why there is a need to develop and create new theoretical models to reflect those changes.  In the instance in which the cognitive dissonance theory is not applicable when it involves motivating employees to increase their sales without receiving any additional incentives outside of their salary another theoretical model would have to be developed to gain understanding on what could motivate these employees.

Ramifications of creating new theoretical models of motivation

Creating new theoretical models of motivation can be very challenging especially when it comes to the workplace because motivation is based on individual needs and not everyone share the same needs outside of the basics.  Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation varies depending on the individual, for example an increase in salary can motivate some employees to increase productivity while satisfied customers can motivate other employees to increase productivity because of the internal feelings received from seeing a customer satisfied.

Personal satisfaction and productivity

Theoretical models of motivation can affect personal satisfaction and productivity because they provide a better understanding on “individual actions and what determines them” (Graves, 2007).  When an employer understands motivation and behavior they can provide their employees with things that could give them personal satisfaction and with that productivity can increase. 

Conclusion

Motivation affects human behavior in many ways and many theories have been developed dating back to ancient greek times to provide an explanation on those factors.  I chose the cognitive dissonance theory to explain motivation based on morals, values, and beliefs in certain situations at the workplace because I have always been the type of person that wants to do what is right to avoid those uncomfortable feelings that I learned is known as cognitive dissonance.  Applying the cognitive dissonance theory suggests that those uncomfortable feelings will motivate an individual to change their behavior so those feelings can go away which is something that I have experienced in many situations at the workplace.

References

Graves, P. R. (2007). Motivation. Encyclopedia of Business and Finance. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX1552100221&v=2.1&u=uphoenix&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=b76e0ca205064ac85c36e92d30b15ce9

Grigg, R. (2008). Cognitive dissonance. A dangerous psychology. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/358348089

Motivation. (2013). The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/columency/motivation/0

Stone, J. (2010). Cognitive dissonance theory. Encyclopedia of identity. doi:10.4135/9781412979306.n35

Biological and Humanistic Approaches to Personality

Biological and Humanistic Approaches to Personality

A theory can be defined in the dictionary as “the supposition or system of ideas explaining something” ("Theory," 2012).  The field of psychology has expanded over decades because of various theories that have been developed to give explanations on human behavior.  This paper will discuss theories involving biological and humanistic approaches to personality by using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to discuss the extent to which growth needs influence personality formation as well as provide a description of biological factors that influence the formation of personality.  This paper will also examine the relationship of biological factors to Maslow’s theory of personality and explain the basic aspects of humanistic theory that are incompatible with biological explanations of personality.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow developed a theory known as hierarchy of needs that “explains human behavior in terms of basic requirements for survival and growth” (Schmutte, 2006) and contributes to the formation of personality.  According to this theory the needs are in order of “importance for survival and their power to motivate the individual” (Schmutte, 2006).  Food, water and oxygen represent the lowest level of the need hierarchy and these needs must be fulfilled before other needs can be met.  Needs on higher levels of the hierarchy focus more on the psychological well-being of an individual and they are often influenced by education and experiences in life. As stated earlier, “the basic needs for human survival include food, water, shelter, oxygen, and sleep” (Schmutte, 2006) and are known as the physiological needs on the pyramid and when these needs are not satisfied, individuals are unable to focus on higher needs such as safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization.  According to the pyramid once physiological needs are met safety needs begin to surface which include “a sense of security and predictability in the world” (Schmutte, 2006) and attempts are made by individuals to maintain conditions that allow them to feel safe and avoid danger.  Maslow believed that if an individual was not successful in satisfying safety needs it would lead to “neurotic behavior and other emotional problems” (Schmutte, 2006) that could impact personality formation. The need for love and belonging emerge once physiological and safety needs are satisfied.  Love and belonging needs consist of “longings for an intimate relationship with another person as well as the need to belong to a group and to feel accepted” (Schmutte, 2006). Self-esteem and the esteem of others are included in the esteem needs on the pyramid.  Self-esteem “is the feeling that one is worthwhile, competent, and independent and the esteem of other involves the feeling that other people respect and appreciate the person” (Schmutte, 2006).  Maslow believed that once an individual has fulfilled their basic needs, “concerns about worthiness emerge and the focus becomes not just surviving, but doing well according to meaningful communal standards” (Schmutte, 2006).  At the top of the pyramid are self-actualization needs which are needs “associated with realizing one’s full potential” (Schmutte, 2006). The need for self-actualization occurs when an individual begins to focus on doing what they are meant do in life in relation to “developing his or her talents and abilities to their fullest extent” (Schmutte, 2006). The Hierarchy of need explains how basic human needs motivate human behavior which in turn influences personality development.

Biological factors that influence personality

Biological factors that influence the formation of personality consist of genetic traits that are inherited, endocrine glands, and the nervous system.  Genetic traits that are inherited is known as heredity which is “the biological transmission of genetic characteristics from parent to offspring” ("Heredity," 2009) and is considered a very important factor in the development of personality.  The endocrine glands are “ductless glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream” ("Endocrine glands," 2003) and consist of thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and gonads.  Hormones are “biochemical messengers that affect body states or growth by carrying signals from one group of cells to another” ("Hormones," 2009) which can have a direct effect on personality due to the levels that are being transmitted and how those levels influence behavior.  The nervous system is a “network of specialized tissue that controls actions and reactions of the body and its adjustment to the environment” ("Nervous system," 2013).  Genetic traits influence personality because they are inherited characteristics that shape an individual; however it is possible that some traits can be influenced by the environment which is also an important component of personality formation.

Relationship between biological factors to Maslow’s theory of personality

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is a theory on personality that explains that individual’s will reach their full potential in life by satisfying certain needs in life and that theory relates to biological factors because those components contribute to personality and if there are issues it is possible that an individual could have difficulty with satisfying the needs in the pyramid.  For example, if there is an excessive production of certain hormones it could cause an individual to display certain characteristics that are considered to be unstable and could prevent them from satisfying certain needs.

Humanistic Theory

Humanistic theory “emphasizes subjective experience, conscious free-will, and human aspiration” ("Humanistic theory," 2009).  Humanistic theory conflicts with theories that were presented prior such as psychoanalytic and behaviorist because it “presented an optimistic view of human nature, in which humans are active, creative, and concerned with growth” ("Humanistic theory," 2009).  Humanistic theory is incompatible with biological explanations of personality because it states “that humans think consciously and rationally and can exert control over their biological urges” ("Humanistic theory," 2009) in which sometimes can be impossible for certain individuals especially if they are experiencing chemical imbalances. Another incompatibility between humanistic and biological theory is that humanistic theory states that individuals develop inadequate personality traits through learning experiences which is opposite of the biological theory that states certain traits are inherited.

Conclusion

Biological and humanistic theories have different approaches on the explanation of personality development; however they do share a few similarities.  Abraham Maslow developed a Hierarchy of Needs theory to explain personality development as a part of basic human needs and his pyramid shows how satisfying human needs impact personality formation.  Maslow’s believed that in order for an individual to reach self-actualization, which is the highest level on the pyramid they first had to satisfy basic needs such as physiological and then psychological needs and during these stages the experiences would contribute to personality formation.

References

Endocrine glands. (2003). The Macmillan Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/move/endocrine_glands/0

Heredity. (2009). The penguin dictionary of psychology. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/penguinpsyc/heredity/0

Hormones. (2009). The Sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n1206

Humanistic theory. (2009). The sage glossary of the social and behavioral sciences. doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n1219

Nervous system. (2013). The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/columency/nervous_system/0

Schmutte, D. L. (2006). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. The Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health, 3(2nd), 1662-1665.

Theory. (2012). Key terms in literary theory. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/contlt/theory/0

Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment

Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment

Psychoanalytic Theory was first developed by Sigmund Freud which was based off of treatment that administered to his patients suffering from neurological disorders and is the “framework for understanding the impact of the unconscious on thoughts, feeling, and behavior.  Freud posited that most of what motivates individuals lies outside of their immediate awareness” ("Psychoanalytic Theory," 2008).  This paper will provide a Psychoanalytic Personality Assessment by comparing and contrasting the psychoanalytic theories of Freud, Jung and Adler and give two characteristics of each theory that I agree with and two characteristics that I disagree with. As a part of the assessment this paper will describe the stages of Freud’s theory and explain characteristics of personality using those components and describe uses of at least three Freudian defense mechanisms with real-life examples. 

Freud, Jung, Adler

Freud is considered to be the father of psychoanalysis because of his theory that was developed concerning the mind and for a method of treatment for mental illness.  Freud’s theories of the mind consist of “the division of mental experience into the conscious and the unconscious, and the structure of the personality in the ID, ego and superego” ("Freud, Sigmund," 2006).  Freud’s theory interpreted “the id as fundamental, containing the inherited biological disposition of the individual, with the ego and superego developing through the formative first five years of life” ("Freud, Sigmund," 2006).  

Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic theory is considered to be an “expansion of Freud’s theory beyond its sexual/gender connotation” (Blackbourn, 2006).    Jung’s theory followed many of Freud’s concepts but his approach was different in relation to women and has less emphasis on sex.  Jung’s theory states that “the human psyche is made up of the collective unconscious, conscious, ego, and persona.  The ego is reflective of individual experience partly existing in one’s conscious and partly unconscious” (Blackbourn, 2006).  Jung believed that “in the collective unconscious, we find these pre-mortise images, racial images established perhaps thousands of years ago” and that there are two main archetypes “anima which is the ideal male mate, and animus which is the ideal female mate and that the personal is a superficial social mask that the individual presents, or puts on while involved in a social relationship” (Blackbourn, 2006).     

Alfred Adler worked with Sigmund Freud for a period time as a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society; however their difference in opinions on psychoanalytic theory forced Adler to leave the Psychoanalytic Society and establish his own school of individual psychology that was based off of his beliefs that “striving for social success and power was fundamental to human motivation” ("Adler, Alfred," 2008).  According to Adler’s theory “individuals develop problems and maladjustments when they cannot surmount feelings of inferiority acquired in childhood.  This inferiority complex is often compensated for by assertive or aggressive behavior” ("Adler, Alfred," 2008). 

Freud believed that each personality was made up of a multilateral structure that consists of “the id which is the unconscious emotions, desires and fears which may surface in dreams or madness; the ego which is the conscious rationalizing section; and the superego, which may be compared to the conscience” ("Freud, Sigmund," 2008).  I agree with Freud’s theories on id, ego, and superego just like Jung and Adler; however I do not believe that everything is motivated by sexuality in the manner that Freud stated in his theory.  Freud’s theory is based off of stages that an individual must go through starting at a very young age with desires that need to be fulfilled and as the child becomes older and the ego develops it allows room for an individual to make decisions pertaining to their desires realistically and soon when the superego develops decisions can be made according to moral values of society.  Freud also believed that “the adoption of a satisfactory superego is dependent on the resolution of the Oedipus complex” which he considered a very important part of the Phallic Stage in his psychodynamic theory of development in which “the unconscious wish of little boys is to kill their father and marry their mother” ("Oedipus complex," 2006) and that is something that I completely disagree with. 

Adler’s theory states that “humans are motivated more by their subjective expectations of the future than by their objective experience of the past;” and that is a characteristic that I can agree with because I believe that when someone expects certain things to happen in their life they will set goals that will make them more inclined to work harder to achieve those goals which is motivation; however I do believe that certain experiences of the past can also be a source of motivation.

While I agree with Jung’s theory that states personality consist of “collective unconscious, conscious, ego, and persona” (Blackbourn, 2006),  I do not agree with his idea with what he believed to the content of the “collective unconscious” because I think it is impossible to have images in your unconscious mind from a time that you did not exist. 

Stages of Freud’s Theory and characteristics of personality

The first stage of Freud’s psychosexual development is the oral stage which is believed to take place before the one year’s of age in which “infants are driven to satisfy their drives of hunger and thirst, and they turn to their mother’s breast or bottle for this satisfaction, as well as for the security and pleasure” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.68).   During this stage infants are provided with comfort and develop trust; however at some point they have to learn to become less dependent on caretakers as they become older or they will experience a sense of codependency that could result in aggressive behavior.  After the oral stage comes the anal stage which occurs around the age of two “during which children are toilet trained” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p. 69).   Freud believes that during this stage desire is controlled by bladder and bowel movements in which children have to learn how to control their bodily needs and once they are successful at that task there is feelings of accomplishment and independence.  Freud believed that success at this stage is determined by the way in which parent’s toilet train because when praise and rewards are used when the child uses the toilet at the proper time it helps children feel competent.  The Phallic stage begins around the age of four and Freud believes that during this stage “sexual energy is focused on the genitals and children may explore their genitals and masturbate” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p. 70).  During this stage children begin to identify with the same-sex parent as they learn the difference between male and female in which feelings of inferiority can develop due to envy of the opposite sex.  The Latency stage occurs between the ages of 5 to 11 “in which no important psychosexual developments take place and during which sexual urges are not directly expressed by instead are channeled into other activities such as going to school and making friends” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.72). During the latent period children are more focused on relationships with peers and hobbies which are very important for the development of social and communication skills and well as building self-confidence.  The genital stage is the final stage that occurs at the beginning of “adolescence in which attention is turned toward heterosexual relations” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.72) and lasts throughout an individual’s life in which there is a growing interest in the well-being of others which differs from earlier stages which were mainly concerned with the needs of oneself. 

Defense Mechanisms

Repression is “a defense mechanism that pushes threatening thought into the unconscious” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.75). Many rape victims cope with using repression as a defense mechanism because sometimes it helps them to cope with everyday life because they push the traumatic events into their unconscious as if they never happened.  As someone becomes older and claims to have no memory of childhood experiences it could be very possible that they have repressed that time in their due to traumatic experiences. 

Denial is a “defense mechanism in which one refuses to acknowledge anxiety provoking stimulus” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.82).  Denial is a very common defense mechanism; however it is most common in individuals that are suffering from drug and alcohol addictions because they refuse to acknowledge that a problem does exist.  An individual that is in denial has actually forced themselves to believe that nothing is wrong and then they try to convince others such as friends and family. 

Rationalization is “a defense mechanism in which post-hoc logical explanations are given for behaviors that were actually driven by internal unconscious motives” (Friedman & Schustack, 2012 p.85).   Everyone always tries to rationalize their behavior especially when they know it was wrong but somehow they try to give a logical explanation such as the person that gets caught stealing out of the grocery store.  They know they behavior is wrong but they will try to rationalize that behavior by claiming to be in dire need of food; however stealing food is not the way to solve your hunger problem because they are other options but they will try their best to rationalize that behavior.

Conclusion

Sigmund Freud was the first to develop psychoanalytic theory based off of his case studies of his patients that were suffering from neurological disorders.  Freud believed that the structure of human personality derived from the id, ego and superego and from that he developed psychosexual stages of development to explain how one’s personality developed with much emphasis on sexuality which is something that Jung and Adler disagreed with because they did believe that sexuality played much of a role in personality development.  Jung believed in the concepts of archetypes and Adler believed that individuals are self-determined; however both Jung and Adler agreed with Freud’s concepts of the id, ego and superego.  The concept of defense mechanisms is a part of psychoanalytic theory developed by Freud that “distort reality to protect the ego” and are used by individuals in various situations for different reasons and can sometimes be unknown.

References

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