Leadership and Performance at the Workplace

Leadership Theories

A leader is someone that people follow; they are responsible for providing guidance and direction to others such as supervisors and managers at the workplace.  There is more to leadership than just providing direction and guidance, leadership “involves influencing the attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and feelings of other people” (Spector, 2012).  While conducting an assessment of Woody’s Veneer Factory leadership roles I have uncovered that there are many leaders in different areas of the factory, however there does not seem to be a good quality of leadership which is a major contributing factor to the hostility and inappropriate behavior that is being conducted by employees.

 Leadership theories were developed to “provide a foundation for analyzing and predicting the complex nature of leadership behavior” (Williams, Ricciardi, & Blackbourn, 2006).   As a consultant for Woody’s Veneer Factory I examined two leadership theories to help implement guidelines for their supervisors and managers to understand the effectiveness of leadership and workplace performance.  There are a few different theories used to classify leadership such as, trait, behavior, and attribution, contingency, situational and transformational, however other approaches have been developed that “relate to variables that influence leadership effectiveness, including categories about leader, follower, and situational characteristics” (Williams, Ricciardi,  & Blackbourn, 2006).

The morale at Woody’s Veneer is very low and the employees are very unhappy with the treatment that they receive from their supervisors so they are purposely sabotaging material that has a direct effect on the organizations revenue.  The morale of the organization starts at the top and the trait theory can help identify those individual’s that possess characteristics of effective leadership.  Applying the trait theory can evaluate current and future employees in supervisory and management positions to make sure that are equipped with the knowledge and skills to not only guide and direct employees but to be effective as well in helping achieve the organization’s goals.  The trait theory has help to identify which supervisors possess the qualities of effective leadership and with formal training on enhancing management skills they can begin to apply those characteristics in their position.

The path-goal theory can work in unison with the trait theory because if an individual possess the characteristics of effective leadership then they will be able to motivate employees to achieve the goals established by the organization.  The path-goal theory suggests that the supervisors identified from the trait theory can improve the employee’s motivation by simplifying the paths that are needed to achieve the organizations goal and remove obstacles that affect their performance.  The “us” versus “them” behavior has to be eliminated and employees should be recognized for their performance and treated with respect, effective communication such as monthly meetings to give employees a chance to provide feedback on their working environment that will also allow upper management to address issues and concerns.

References

Nolan, S. (2010). Leadership. Strategic HR Review, 9(4), H,H2-H3.

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Williams, F., Ricciardi, D., & Blackbourn, R. (2006). Leadership, theories of. Encyclopedia of educational leadership and administration. doi:10.4135/9781412939584.n

Measuring the level of success of a training program

Prior to the beginning of a training program organizations should set goals and explain those goals to the individuals receiving the training so that all parties involved in the process are clear about the purpose of the training.  Once goals are established the level of success can be measured once the training is complete because all parties involved were aware of what was supposed to be achieved during training.  Upon the conclusion of the training, the organization can evaluate the trainee’s reaction to the training by using a questionnaire that would allow them answer questions about their thoughts and feelings about the training received on a rating scale.  Evaluation test can be performed to analyze what was learned during the training by measuring the trainee’s knowledge, skills and attitude in comparison to what they were prior to the training program. Organizations can form groups of managers and assistants to evaluate if what individuals learned in training is now being incorporated in how they perform the functions of their job.  One sure way is through observation from the managers and assistants that were selected to evaluate the trainees.  Face-to-Face interviews should be conducted to get a perspective of the material that was covered during the training that will allow the managers and employees to provide feedback on what was covered.  The results of the training can also be evaluated through employee evaluations where their performance is measured in terms of before and after training incorporating the goals that were established prior to the beginning of training to see if the trainee met those goals. 

Working with Employees

Working with employees

I/O psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on “the scientific study of the human side of organizations” (Spector, 2012 p.4).  In an effort to gain more understanding of the role of an I/O psychologist for this assignment I conducted a thirty minute interview with the general manager at a local yard that provides transportation for school aged children. The purpose of this interview was to gain experience outside of the classroom by interacting with someone outside of the classroom and providing me the opportunity to develop skills, synthesize knowledge, and integrate learning in a real world setting.

The general manager is mainly responsible for “the overall results of a business unit” (Thain, 1978).  Organizations that provide transportation for school-aged children sometimes have more than one location throughout the city to make the access convenient and that is why a general manager is needed.  The general manager in this case is responsible for overseeing all the functions in the organization such as human resources, accounting and the drivers which is the most important function of the business.  As a general manager, Karen is also responsible for the hiring and firing of employees, enforcing company policies, assigning work, authorizing time-off and handling concerns and issues that arise.  Karen has only been at this location for a couple of years because it is relatively a new location to the company but has been in existence for well over 20 year; however she has worked for the company for well over fifteen years.  She has encountered many problems since the merger and is considering an early retirement because the position is becoming overwhelming.

Karen states that she has experienced many problems with the employees at this yard, such as recruitment because the location is not accessible to public transportation, which makes it difficult for many individuals seeking employment that do not have access to a car.  The employees have a low morale because they feel that the company does not value their employees.  The low morale contributes to the lack of respect that drivers have for her as the general manager, she is constantly being disrespected, yelled at and called names. Retaining employees and absenteeism is her biggest concern amongst all the issues at this location.  

According to Karen one of the biggest problems that this yard has is retaining drivers.  The company offers training and certification for individuals seeking to obtain their commercial driving license at no cost to the individual and the only requirement is to stay employed with the company for ninety days after obtaining certification.  The pay is relatively fair but the benefit packages offered are not.  Individuals have the potential to make money, however due to the contract designated by the union, work is supposed to be assigned based on seniority and individuals that have not been there long often do not get much work.  Many individuals have left once there ninety-days were up and went to work for competitors that offer better benefit packages and more opportunities to work additional hours.  In an effort to appease the drivers, Karen assigns extra work as it comes in to those drivers who have communicated to her that they are available to work additional hours, however many other drivers have a problem with whom she assigns the work to because of the union contract work is to be awarded based on seniority and is supposed to be posted up for all drivers to have the opportunity to place a bid for the assignment.  In the past the senior drivers get the award and the balance of work was not even amongst the drivers, so she had a clause added that gave her the right to evenly distribute the work among the drivers.  This has created a lot of tension and confrontation among the drivers.

 There is always a shortage of staff which prompts her to enlist office personnel to cover runs as well as herself at times due to a high level of drivers constantly calling out. This location has a total of eight standby drivers, which are drivers that are paid to fill in when needed.  The amount of daily callouts exceeds the amount of standby drivers and that is why she has to pull from other resources.  There is a four hour break for drivers every day and they are encouraged to handle their appointments and personal affairs during that time to alleviate calling out, however many of the drivers are older and often require medical attention that prompts them to call out regularly. Karen believes that the only solution to this problem is to recruit more drivers, however many individuals that seek employment there have to go through the training and certification process which could take up to six months to prepare them to get on the road.   

The interview with Karen has given me a better outlook on the difference between management and effective leadership in relation to the workplace.  According to the Network Journal, “Managers are task oriented.  They supervise and direct workflow for maximum efficiency, therefore they tend to be more concerned about the process and the results, rather than about the employees and their individual needs.  Leaders, on the other hand, are concerned not only about the goals, but also about the people who are involved in the process” (Walker, 2009).  As the general manager Karen does not possess the characteristics of an effective leader, which is a major contributing factor to the low morale at this location.  Karen has a difficult time effectively communicating with the drivers because of passiveness and her efforts to avoid disagreements that often turn into arguments.  The goal of the company is to safely transport school-aged children to and from school every day in a timely fashion, however many drivers are not completely committed to ensuring that the goal is achieved and Karen does not address individual drivers but may make an announcement reiterating the goals.  The drivers are separated into “cliques” and are often working against each other instead of as a team.

After carefully examining the information collected I believe that one of the first steps in retaining employees is to remove the ninety day rule.  As a condition of employment, individuals should be required to work the entire school year after receiving their certifications that was no cost to them.  Prior to the end of the school year, driver should have to confirm if they are returning the next school, which would give management the chance to recruit more drivers.  Because so many drivers complain about the lack of work they receive there should be a monthly sign-up sheet for drivers to put their name if they are interested in additional work and work should be assigned in the order that they signed up giving each person a chance.  Once the bottom of the list has been reached a new sign-up sheet should be put out to give other drivers who probably didn’t sign-up before the chance to sign-up.

 Real love in the workplace states that “What all people need most is to feel loved” (Deprez-Sims & Baer, 2008), and in relation to these employees they feel that their job is the most important function of the company and all they want is to feel appreciated and acknowledged for the efforts that are made to successfully perform the functions of their job.  Karen is not a toxic manager, but her passive attitude may come off as someone who does not care when indeed I believe she does care and that is why she has not taken actions against employees who constantly call out from work.  Drivers begin the school year with three sick days and accumulate more time throughout the year if they do not use their time.  Many drivers have used time that they have not even earned yet.  Many of the older drivers call out due to health reasons; however there are drivers that call out because they are trying to seek employment elsewhere or just because they don’t feel like coming to work.  I suggest that after employees have used all of their sick days if they require additional days a doctor’s note should be required to return to work and they should have to take part in a training class before returning to regular duties.    I also suggest regular monthly meetings to address issues and concerns that the drivers may have, as well as publicly acknowledging their dedication to successfully performing the function of their job with brunch.  Having an open-door policy may also help the drivers feel comfortable with talking to Karen if they are having an issue that they may not want to address in front of everyone. 

Summary

Karen is the liaison between the employees and corporate headquarters and she is responsible for making sure each location has adequate staff and that each employee is performing the functions of their job safely.  Karen has so many factors to consider in her position because corporate polices often conflict with the drivers which have made the environment quite hostile. My final suggestion was to have a survey developed for employees to complete, having the results analyzed and then submitted to corporate so that some changes could be developed to improve the environment and increase the employee morale.

 Appendix

1.      What is your job title?

2.      As the general manager what are your responsibilities?

3.      What are some of the problems that arise for you as a general manager?

4.      How do you handle the issue with retaining drivers?

4.1.1.                  Do you believe that your method is working?

4.1.2.                  Do you believe that there is anything else you could do to make drivers want to stay?

5.      How do you handle the issues with drivers constantly calling out?

5.1.1.                  Have you ever attempted to address the affect that calling out has on the company as well as other employees with the drivers?

5.1.2.                  Do you have a plan to eliminate employees constantly calling out?  Why not?

5.1.3.                  Do you require a doctor’s note from employees who call out sick?

6.      Of all the problems that you face as a general manager, which ones concern you the most?

6.1.   Have you reached out to corporate in an effort to resolve these issues?  Why not?

6.2.   Do these problems contribute to your wanting to retire early?

7.      If corporate supported your efforts to increase the morale at this location, would you stay?

8.      Do you value the opinions of the drivers?

References

Deprez-Sims, A., & Baer, G. (2008). Real Love in the Workplace: Eight Principles for Consistently Effective Leadership in Business. Family Business Review. doi:10.1111/j.1741-6248.2007.00114.x

Hausknecht, J. P., Rodda, J., & Howard, M. J. (2009). Targeted employee retention: Performance-based and job-related differences in reported reasons for staying. Human Resource Management, 48(2), 269-288.

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Thain, D. H. (1978). The functions of the general manager. Business Quarterly (Pre-1986), 43(3), 53.

Walker, D. (2009). Effective Leadership in the Workplace. Retrieved from http://www.tnj.com/career/career-advice/effective-leadership-workplace

Improving Organization Retention

Improving Organization Retention Paper

Organizations that promote healthy work environments completely understand that it benefits their organization as well as their employees and customers.  Healthy work environments promote positivity within the organization that will result in an increase in productivity.  Problems are inevitable within any organization as misunderstanding occur, personality conflicts and misconduct, however it is the manner in which the problems are handled that has a direct influence on an employee’s perception of the organization.  I have been hired as independent consultant for JC’s Casino to help improve retention issues concerning the dealers and housekeepers.  As an independent consultant I have to identify each issue and make recommendations to the president of the casino on how to improve overall retention. 

One of the first things I examined was the dealers pay rate in comparison to other casinos in the area and I found out that JC’s casino pays their dealers more than their local competition; however most of the dealers have left to work for other casino’s for less money.  Dealers are required to have a state gaming license and work on the gaming floor in the casino dealing cards, shuffle decks of cards, exchange chips for cash and payout winnings.  The owner’s son Joe is the floor manager, also known as the pit boss and he oversees the dealers and tables supervising large transactions and payouts.  The turnover rate for dealers at JC’s casino is very high and the pay rate is very competitive so it was obvious that the dealers were not leaving because they were unhappy with their salaries.

JC’s casino like many organizations performs exit interviews with employees when the employee decides to terminate their employment.  An exit interview is “a discussion between a departing employee and a representative of the organization that occurs in the last days of an employee’s tenure” (Holtom, 2006).   Tom Sneed is the human resource director and conducts exit interviews at JC’s casino.  Exit interviews serve many purposes, for one it give the organization the opportunity to get information about what areas the organization is doing well in and what areas needs improvement. Employees provide information as to why they are leaving during the exit interview, which could give the organization an opportunity to persuade them to stay depending upon what their grievances are.  Exit interviews can also be used “as a public relations exercise to ensure that the parting employees leaves the company on a positive note” (Holtom, 2006).  Many of the dealers alluded to their pit boss Joe as being “toxic, overbearing, evil, and incompetent”, however the human resource director is afraid to confront the owner about the accusations bought against his son.

The information gathered from the exit interviews of the dealers has allowed me to identify one of the problems that JC’s casino has with employee retention, which is a toxic manager.  The human resource director is well aware of this problem but is afraid to confront the owner about his son and the way he is treating employees because he is in fear of losing his position at the organization.  The Sunday Times published an article on toxic bosses and defined them as “managers who really make life hell for staff” (Wheldon, 2007).  Joe is the owner’s son so confronting him presents a conflict of interest for the human resource director, however the owner of JC casino needs to be made aware of the way his son is treating employees because his behavior is affecting the morale and productivity of the organization forcing dealers to leave and go work at other casinos for less money but better treatment.

The housekeeping department is another area that is having difficulty retaining employees.  Housekeeping is a physically demanding position where individuals are responsible for the maintenance and cleanliness of JC’s casino.  Individuals in this position are required to be in good health because the functions of the job are mostly physical, such as standing, walking, lifting and bending.  Andrew Keehn is the director of housekeeping and has been trying to get more staff but he believes that “good help is hard to find”, so he puts more responsibilities on the staff he currently has without any additional compensation.  The pay rate for a housekeeper at JC’s casino is equivalent to other casinos; however the workload is more which is good enough reason for employees to seek positions at other casinos.  The director of housekeeping perception is that of an individual with low morale, therefore he is more likely to have issues with recruitment because he already believes that it is impossible to find individuals that will possess the knowledge and skills to perform the functions of the job. 

As an independent consultant for JC’s casino my goal is to help this organization develop a solution to the problem they are having with recruiting and retaining employees before these problems escalate affecting the organizations revenue.  The first step is to work on building a foundation for success by implementing mandatory training for all management personnel responsible for overseeing other employees.  Training of managers will increase job satisfaction and have an influence on employee retention.  The training should focus on how to treat employees with respect and increase productivity.  Managers must learn how to keep the morale high in the organization as it will motivate the employees by promoting a positive work environment.  An addendum should be added to the employee handbook that ensures employees that JC’s casino is committed to providing all employees with a safe and secure working environment and that if someone feels that are being unfairly treated it should be reported immediately to the human resource director so that the issue can be resolved immediately.  If his son continues to treat employees bad, he should be terminated as that may reduce the turnover rate for the dealers. 

Motivation is defined as “an internal state that induces a person to engage in particular behaviors.  From one perspective, it has to do with the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior over time.  From another perspective, motivation is concerned with the desire to acquire or achieve some goal” (Spector, 2012 p. 194).  Work motivation theories “are most typically concerned with the reason, other than ability that some people perform their jobs better than others. Depending on the situation, these theories can predict people’s choice of task behavior, their effort, or their persistence” (Spector, 2012 p. 194).

B.F. Skinner and his colleagues developed the reinforcement theory which “describes how rewards or reinforcements can affect behavior” (Spector, 2012).  Reinforcement theory is a non-motivational theory because Skinner believed that an individual’s behavior was merely the result of consequences.  If an individual received positive reinforcements they are more likely to repeat certain behaviors and if they receive negative reinforcements then they are more than likely not to repeat that behavior.  Organizations most promote a healthy positive work environment in order for the reinforcement theory to be effective.  Positive and negative reinforcement is a very strong tool that can be used to control individual’s behavior, however without analyzing that behavior further it may never be known what contributed to the individual acting a certain way.

The owner of JC’s casino can apply the reinforcement theory with the managers, particularly his son by reprimanding him for treating the employees badly.  If the managers see that this type of behavior will not be tolerated then they will be reluctant to mistreat the employees.  I also believe that if the owner shows care and concern for the treatment of his employees it will make them reconsider leaving the organization to go work for the competition.  The only disadvantage I see to this is that it may stop his son from mistreating employees; however it will not uncover the reason as to why he was mistreating the employees in the first place.  As for the housekeepers, the reinforcement theory can be applied by implementing positive reinforcements to current employees for their efforts, especially since they are short staffed and many employees are doing more than their share of the work.  Verbal praises and acknowledgements would show employees that management is paying attention to their efforts, as well as rewards such as gift cards and thank you notes.

Justice theories “are concerned with people’s values rather than needs, beliefs, or reinforcements.  These theories presume that people universally value fairness in their social relations at work” (Spector, 2012 p.195).  Fairness in the workplace is based on outcomes, which is “rewards or everything of personal value that an employee gets from working for an organization” in relation to employee inputs, which “are the contributions made by the employee to the organization” (Spector, 2012 p.204).  Ensuring equal and fair treatment is what motivates many individuals at the workplace.  If employees feel that they are not receiving equal and fair treatment in comparison to others it can cause them to be very unhappy with their job and not feel motivated to stay at that organization. 

The housekeepers at JC’s casino are expected to work harder and do more than someone else in their same position and receive the same pay and their efforts went unrecognized and because of this they became frustrated and angry which eventually led to them leaving.  The director of housekeeping needs to apply more of an effort in recruiting staff for the housekeeping department to balance the workload for the current employees.  The dealers work environment is hostile because their pit boss is “toxic, overbearing, evil, and incompetent”.  The human resource director must confront the owner about the way his son is treating the dealers so that this issue can be addressed because if he allows this to continue without saying something JC’s casino will not be able to retain dealers and the revenue will be directly affected.

Occupational stressor also known as “a job stressor is a condition or situation at work that requires and adaptive response on the part of the employee” (Spector, 2012 p. 283).  Staff shortage is an occupational stressor for the housekeepers because they are required to clean more room than normal.  Shortage of staff can also put stress on employees in other departments because they may be called in to help out when it is very busy to perform job functions outside of what they were hired for.  To minimize job stressor in housekeeping, human resources should take over the recruitment and hiring process and it should be done right away because hiring additional staff will alleviate the problems that are associated with being short staffed.

In conclusion, Organizations must fully understand the importance of creating a healthy work environment for their employees as it not only benefits the employees but the organization as well because a positive work environment ensures high morale and increase in employee productivity.  Motivational theories help organizations implement policies and procedures that focus on employee retention.  The reduction of counterproductive behavior is beneficial to the organization because it will eliminate the negative perception employees develop from being exposed to individuals performing negative behavior that goes against the beliefs of the organization.

References

CIOinsight. (2005). Recognizing Toxic Management And Crushing It. Retrieved from http://www.cioinsight.com/c/a/Past-News/Recognizing-Toxic-Management-and-Crushing-It/#sthash.pU0F0KzD.dpuf

Holtom, B. (2006). Exit interview. Encyclopedia of career development. doi:10.4135/9781412952675.n108

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Watters, M. (2003). Improving employee retention. Canadian Printer, 111(6). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/274804147?accountid=458

Wheldon, J. (2007). Beware toxic bosses. The Sunday Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/375546888?accountid=458

Psychological Testing at the Workplace

Psychological Testing at the Workplace

One of the most important yet difficult decisions that an organization has to make is whether or not to hire an individual that has submitted an application for a particular position.  Job applications and resumes’ can give the hiring manager a preliminary assessment of an individual’s skills and qualifications based on their previous experience however many organizations prefer to assess the skills and qualifications of an applicant based on the necessity of their organization.

A variety of psychological test have been developed to assist organizations with their hiring process.  Psychological testing varies from the type of test to the types of questions, but the main objective is to help an organization assess the applicant in relation to the functions of the jobs that are available in the organization.  Aside from assessing the ability, knowledge and skills of individuals, organizations, especially those where employees handle currency, seek to assess the integrity of all applicants.   The purpose of an integrity test is to help employers identify “whether or not an employee will engage in counterproductive or dishonest behavior on the job” (Spector, 2012 p. 117).  The questions on the integrity test will revolve around situations that include dishonesty, workplace disruption, stealing and dishonorable behavior.  Test administers tend to mix up the questions in order to detect certain answers involving workplace theft, drug abuse, harassment and unethical behavior. Just like with any test there are pros and cons that come with the results.  The advantages of conducting integrity test will help organizations identify applicants that are more likely to engage in unethical behavior that could save the organization on cost due to those questionable behaviors.  Administering integrity test also sends a message about the values of the organization to the individuals taking the test.  With advantages also come disadvantages with an integrity test.  Test takers may disapprove of the integrity test because they do not see the relevance to the job and decline to take the test which could mean that they are no longer interested in obtaining the job.  The disadvantage of an individual declining to take the test could be the organization losing out on a perfectly good candidate for the position and that individual losing out on the position.  Another disadvantage of the integrity test is individual’s manipulating the test results by answering in a false positive way to all questions.  Ethical issues can arise when administering psychological test such as an integrity test because the hiring agent can use the results of the test to pass judgment on the applicant deeming them incompetent to perform the functions of the job whereas they could have misunderstood the questions on the test.  Another issue that involves ethics when administering psychological tests is the right to protect an individual from humiliation.  When the individual who administered the test is revealing the results to the applicant because of their right to know they have to be careful to not use any shameful labels as well as the applicants right to privacy.

In conclusion, psychological testing is used to assist organization with the hiring process as well as assessing current employees.  An integrity test assesses an individual’s honesty and their trustworthiness based on current, past and potential future behavior, therefore assisting an organization in making the decision of whether or not to hire that individual.       

 References

Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Inc.. (2014). Types of Employment Test. Retrieved from http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/testtypes.aspx

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Why an integrity test. (2011). Enterprise, 17(5), , 33

Office Manager Job Analysis

Job Analysis

The experiences that I have encountered in the workplace have made me put a lot of thought into the responsibilities of an office manager.  While my passion is in the field of psychology if I had to choose another field I would consider a position where I would be responsible for overseeing the functions of an organization which is an office manager for many organizations.  The responsibilities of an office manager varies depending on the type of business and the services offered, however for the most part the office manager is primarily responsible for making sure the organization functions properly ensuring that other employees function “effectively and efficiently” (Best Job Interview, 2014).  In this paper I will conduct a job analysis on an office manager position using the person-oriented approach as well as the position analysis questionnaire and discuss how it could be used within an organization, evaluate the reliability and validity of my job analysis, evaluate different performance appraisal methods that could be used for the position of office manager and explain the various benefits and vulnerabilities of each performance appraisal.

Job analysis is an important part of Industrial-Organizational psychology it “is a method for describing jobs and/or the human attributes necessary to perform them” (Spector, 2012 p.54). Analyzing a job consist of determining what task make up the job and their level of importance as well as what knowledge, skills and abilities are needed to complete those task successfully.  The results from a job analysis are intended to be used for an array of employee management decisions such as promotions; however those results are especially important in employee selection during the hiring process. 

A person-oriented job analysis is a good analysis for the position of office manager because it “provides a description of the characteristics or KSAOs necessary for a person to successfully perform a particular job” (Spector, 2012 p.57).   An individual’s abilities, knowledge, skills and personality that are necessary to perform the function of a job are known as KSAOs.  Office managers are professionals who are responsible for making sure that the operations within the office run efficiently therefore many organizations require that an individual possess the knowledge and skills equivalent to handling the responsibilities as office manager.

Earning a degree in business administration is a requirement for many organizations seeking an individual for the position of office manager, however there are some organizations that just may require an individual to have a high school diploma with office experience.  “A degree in business administration offers courses in accounting, business writing, customer service, communications, business ethics, business practices, computer applications and other subjects that relate to office administration” (Education Portal, 2014).  The courses offered in business administration allow an individual to gain knowledge in areas that will cover the majority of responsibilities that this position entails such as developing and putting into effect office policies, handling complaints and inquires made my customers or employees, ensuring that health and safety polices are up to date and being followed as well as other issues and concerns in relation to functions of the organization.  Individuals seeking a position as office manager must have organizational, negotiation and motivational skills as well as common sense.  The individual must possess the ability to observe the work that is performed by staff to ensure that it is successfully completed on time.  The responsibilities of an office manager are very complex creating a high level of stress therefore the individual must be able to handle stress well and be proficient at the delegation of responsibilities to the staff and meeting company deadlines.  Knowledge of computer software and strong communication skills are essential qualifications that an office manager should possess because their responsibilities involve writing presentations, memorandums and proposals for the organization.  The supervision of other employees involves an individual to be a good verbal communicator along with the ability to interact with people with different backgrounds professionally.

According to the Journal of Applied Psychology “The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a structured job analysis questionnaire composed of worker-oriented job elements” (Ash & Edgell, 1975).  Any job can be analyzed with the Position Analysis Questionnaire because it covers plenty of questions that deal with the job requirements and elements.  Particular elements that are covered in the position analysis questionnaire consist of questions relating to the input of information, mental processes, the output of work, relationships with others, physical and social environment along with the pace and structure of the job.  The results from the Position Analysis Questionnaire could be beneficial to an organization seeking to fill the position for office manager because it would give input from the organizations employees about their expectations for certain positions allowing a decision to be made based upon the needs of the employees.     

A job analysis for office manager could be used in an organization by assessing the abilities, knowledge and skills of an individual in relation to the functions of the organization.  Pre-employment screenings are common is assessing an individual’s abilities, knowledge and skills because it assists the hiring manager in evaluating the individual more in depth after evaluating their background and experience.  Job analysis for the position of office manager is also beneficial for an organization seeking to promote someone in house for the position because the organization already have a pretty good idea of the individual’s abilities but they may have to evaluate their knowledge, skills, emotional intelligence and personality to see if they possess the characteristic to oversee employees.  The good thing about promotions within the organization is that the individual already has the knowledge of how the organization is run so it eliminates the process of educating someone on the organization.

The information obtained from a job analysis is solely dependent upon information retrieved from individuals whom either are performing the job or observing individuals that are performing the job. The reliability and validity of the analysis is important because the judgment of others can sometimes be flawed.  The job analysis of an office manager is reliable based upon the findings when analyzing the abilities, knowledge and skills of an individual in comparison to what the majority of organizations require.  The validity of the analysis of an office manager is supported by the observations made by individuals conducting the analysis along with the employees performing the functions of the job. 

The results that are developed from a job analysis can help develop a performance appraisal system for an office manager because it can help establish the starting salary, salary increases and annual bonuses.  In most cases the starting salary is based on the individual’s prior experience and the results from the psychological testing administered during the hiring process.  The responsibility of the office manager is to ensure that the company’s goals are being met and salary increases as well as annual bonuses are contingent upon those goals being met. More money always inspires an individual to want to do more and better in their position, however in many organizations the office manager responsibilities may consist of them cutting cost for the company to maintain the bottom line that may have an adverse effect on other employees.

In conclusion, I chose to analyze the job of office manager because so many organizations rely on the office manager to run successfully.  Office managers require certain knowledge, skills and personality to be effective in their position that is why a business administration degree is needed for most organizations.  A degree in business administration provides an individual with the educational background needed, however it is experience in an office setting that will allow them to excel in their position.  Previous experience will help determine an individual’s starting salary as an office manager but their performance will determine their salary increases as well as annual bonuses. 

 References

Ash, R. A., & Edgell, S. L. (1975). A note on the readability on the position analysis questionnaire (PAQ). Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(6), 765-766. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.60.6.765

Best Job Interview. (2014). Office Manager Job Description. Retrieved from http://www.best-job-interview.com/office-manager-job-description.html

Education Portal. (2014). Office Manager Skills and Job Requirements. Retrieved from http://education-portal.com/office_manager_skills.html

Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Job Analysis. Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1(1), 377-380.

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology: Research and practice (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

Industrial & Organizational Psychology

History of I/O Psychology

Describe the evolution of the field of industrial/organizational psychology
Industrial-Organizational psychology has been around since the field of psychology evolved into a scientific discipline; however it began to evolve on its own in the beginning of the twentieth century.  Walter Dill Scott and Hugo Munsterberg were experimental psychologists that “began applying psychological principles to the study of organizations” (Landis & Kaplan, 2005), which was huge in the development of I/O psychology.  The work of Scott and Munsterberg identified the importance of how implementing psychological principles could help solve problems within organizations.  Scott and Munsterberg also were recognized as writing the first books in the field of I/O psychology.   An engineer named Frederick Taylor was developing proposals on principles of scientific management around the same time in where he studied employee productivity, “which were designed to guide the selection, training, and reward of production workers” (Landis & Kaplan, 2005).   Taylor suggested that every job be analyzed so that the best possible way of completing a task can be identified; employees should be carefully chosen according to qualities they possess that are related to job performance; training is essential for employees to perform the functions of their job; and a rewards system should be in place for employees who excel in productivity.  In the early stages of the development of I/O psychology the main focus was centered on “issues of job performance and organizational efficiency” (Spector, 2012 p.12) as well as the health of employees.  During the first half of the twentieth century the field of I/O psychology began to advance allowing for focus on more areas dealing with issues in organizations.  During World War I there were many requirements mandated by the military that initiated the use of I/O psychology in both private and government sectors.

Explain why industrial/organizational psychology should be considered a science.  Include an explanation of how descriptive and inferential statistics are used in I/O research

Industrial-organizational is clearly defined as “the scientific study of the workplace” (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2014).  I/O psychologist work in diverse settings with their focus on many different tasks which is split between practice and scientific research.  The practice of I/O psychology within an organizational setting is created from research developed by scientific data collected from the organization.  I/O psychology main activity is research because “research can develop method and procedures for such activities as selecting and training employees” (Spector, 2012 p.8).  Research has had a major impact on I/O psychology because of the development of policies and procedures that are used in the selection and training of employees. Research has also been used to help solve problems within an organization, such as the turnover rate, theft and employee attitudes. Industrial-organizational psychology should be considered a science because of the various research methods, “procedures, techniques, and tools useful in conducting empirical research” (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2014).   These main procedures of scientific method are to collect data from organizations and analyze that data to deal with issues and questions within the organization.  Research for I/O psychologists begins with a question that states the purpose of the study.  The question proposed by the I/O psychologist will lead to a research hypothesis, which is the best guess about the findings.  Descriptive and Inferential statistics are methods used to analyze the data that is collected from the research conducted by an I/O psychologist.  If a survey is conducted regarding how employees rate their salary on a scale of 1-5 with 5 being the worse, the descriptive statistics will summarize the results received and the inferential statistics will help explain the results using a selection of statistical tests. 

Discuss the influence industrial/organization psychology has had on organizations. Provide examples

Industrial-organizational psychologists has had major influences on organizations dating back to periods between World War I and World War II where organizations sought out their services that were mainly related to employee productivity because. During this time Industrial-organizational issues were developing in the United Kingdom and “psychologist Charles Myers co-founded the National Institute of industrial Psychology, and organization devoted to improving efficiency and working conditions of British employees” (Spector, 2012).  The Hawthorne studies also were a major influence of I/O psychology because its focus was on the environmental properties of the workplace, which involved how the brightness of lights and similar issues affected worker productivity.  Studies were conducted that examined the psychological views of employee performance that included matters such as employee break, supervisory direction, group influences and the amount of hours an employee worked.  The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was also a major influence in I/O psychology because this “act set in motion forces that have had a tremendous impact on how organizations hire and treat employees, and not only in the United States” (Spector, 2012 p.13).  Once this act was passed discrimination against minorities and women became illegal and the services of I/O psychologist were enlisted to help develop a system that would remove discrimination in the workplace.  In 1990 the American with Disabilities Act was passed to protect individuals with disabilities against discrimination.  The field of I/O psychology was used to implement policies and procedures that would eliminate discrimination.  The evolution of I/O psychology has contributed to the improvement of many organizations and the workplace conditions for their employees.  The field has expanded remarkably from just being focused on efficiency and productivity to the well-being of the employees. 

References

Landis, R. S., & Kaplan, S. A. (2005). Industrial/Organizational Psychology. Encyclopedia of Statistics in Behavioral Science, 2(1), 915-920.

Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. (2014). Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.siop.org/history/crsppp.aspx

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.