Humans are observers naturally because watching what someone is
doing while you are present is a normal reflex.
Often times while observing an individual’s behavior certain questions
may arise as to why that person is behaving in a certain manner and ultimately
if it a close friend or family member one might question if they will display
that same behavior whether it is good or bad. People tend have similar characteristics and
traits and also may display some of the same behaviors; however there is one
thing that distinguishes the differences amongst individuals which is their
personality. Personality is “an
individual’s unique and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts and
emotions” ("Personality," 2009).
Sigmund Freud conducted research that developed theories that were
based on how an individual’s personality is created and influenced by biology
and environment. In this essay I will
describe the basic nature of personality according to Sigmund Freud and briefly
describe his theory of personality structures, developmental stages, and
defense mechanisms. In addition to that
I will give an example of a defense mechanism that was used by a family member. Freud theories were criticized and I plan to
identify a few of those criticisms as well as discuss why I think his theories
are still popular despite the criticisms.
Sigmund Freud understanding of human personality was attained from
his experiences that he had with his patients, his interpretation of his own
dreams, and his considerable amount or reading about science and humanities
(Feist & Feist, 2009). Freud’s
understanding of human personality gave him the ability to develop the first
contemporary of personality known as the psychoanalytic theory. “Psychoanalytic theory is a framework for
understanding the impact of the unconscious on thoughts, feelings, and
behavior” ("Psychoanalytic Theory," 2008). Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggested that
many things that motivated an individual were things that they were not
immediately aware of.
Psychoanalytic theory of personality says that personality is made
up of three elements, id, ego and superego which all work together to make
intricate human behaviors. The id is the only part of personality that is
present from birth. The id includes all
of the intuitive and physical wishes from the mind. The id “operates according to the pleasure
principle, which has its sole goal the immediate gratification of all urges”
("Psychoanalytic Theory," 2008).
The ego develops from the id and “operates mostly out of the reality
principle, which accounts for reality factors and social norms that prohibit
instinctual urges from being immediately gratified” ("Psychoanalytic
Theory," 2008). The ego makes sure
that urges of the id can be controlled in a manner that is acceptable in
society. The ego operates in the
conscious, preconscious and unconscious minds which are levels of mental life
as described by Freud. The superego is
the last part of personality to develop and is said to be “the moral part of
the mind that represents an individual’s internalized sense of parental and
societal values” ("Psychoanalytic Theory," 2008).
Psychoanalytic theory also covers the assessment of human
development and personality. According
to the theory there are five stages of psychosexual development that children
must experience, and Freud believed that if children did not successfully pass
a particular stage they were more likely to experience sexual or emotional problems
as an adult. The psychosexual
development stages are: “oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital” (Feist &
Feist, 2009 p.38). During each stage a
child must be able to satisfy certain desires in a manner that is considered
normal based on social rules established in their environment. The oral stage is when “infants obtain
life-sustaining nourishment through the oral cavity, but beyond that, they also
gain pleasure through the act of sucking” (Feist & Feist, 2009 p. 39). The beginning of potty training is when the
anal phase of development starts. This
period is “characterized by satisfaction gained through aggressive behavior and
through excretory function” (Feist & Feist, 2009 p.40). The phallic phase is “a time when the genital
area becomes the leading erogenous zone” (Feist & Feist, 2009 p.41). During the phallic phase the differences
between male and female development are distinguished because of the
differences in their organs. During the
latency stage sexual urges in children are repressed because many parents
discourage any type of sexual activity so children focus more on peer
relationships. At the onset of puberty the genital period begins as the sexual
urges of children begin to resurface. During
the genital period young adolescents will more than likely direct their sexual
energy towards another person instead of themselves in an effort to seek some
type of pleasure.
Sigmund Freud identified defense mechanisms as an approach to how
the ego handles inconsistencies between the Id, ego and superego. The International
Dictionary of Psychoanalysis states that “defense mechanisms are psychic
processes that are generally attributed to the organized ego” (Schmid-Kitsikis,
2005). Defense mechanisms help establish
and retain more favorable mental conditions in a manner that will allow and
individual’s ego to handle and get around anxiety and mental distractions. Freud identified some key “defense mechanisms
that include repression, reaction, formation, displacement, fixation,
regression, projection, introjection, and sublimation” (Feist & Feist, 2009
p.35). All defense mechanisms have two
things in common, they happen unconsciously and they tend to misrepresent the
reality of a situation. Repression
involves forcing unpleasant memories into the subconscious; Reaction formation
is exaggerating in the opposite way to the anxiety; Displacement redirects
feelings onto someone or something else in an effort to disguise or conceal
their feelings; Fixation happens when the idea of doing something produces
anxiety, “the ego may resort to the strategy of remaining at the present, more
psychological stage” (Feist & Feist, 2009 p.36); Regression occurs when an
individual reverts back to an earlier developmental stage mentally to relieve
feelings of anxiety; Projection involves blaming unpleasant feelings on someone
else; Introjection involves an individual combining the “positive qualities of
another person into their own ego” (Feist & Feist, 2009 p.37); Sublimation is the redirection of unfavorable
desires into something else that is socially acceptable.
I have a cousin that has been struggling with his drug addiction
for years. Recently he was hospitalized
and when I went to visit him I noticed that he was extremely overweight and I
felt bad because I have not seen him in years but we talk on the phone all the
time. When I asked him how he gained so
much weight he explained to me that once he stopped using drugs he started to
eat as a substitute for his cravings.
Listening to his story made me think of the defense mechanism
sublimation, because although being overweight is not really acceptable in
society, I believe that is more accepted than being a drug addict.
One of the biggest criticisms of Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory was
that there was no scientific approach to the way he analyzed human behavior.
Many beliefs were that there was no way possible to scientifically study
concepts such as the unconscious mind or the multitudes of personality,
therefore many believed this psychoanalytic theory to be inaccurate. Another criticism was because Freud’s case
studies were based off of him studying a standardized sample group, which were
the patients he was treating. Criticism developed because many felt that it was
impossible to generalize a theory if you did not conduct studies with a variety
of people.
Sigmund Freud’s theories are still popular despite the many
criticisms because his work on developing his theories helped to shape the
views of childhood, personality, memory, sexuality and therapy. Freud’s psychoanalysis was the first school
of thought that made way for other psychologist to develop theories that either
expanded from his theories or opposed them.
Freud’s theories have been very effective in today’s society as many
individuals have been accustomed to learning more about dream interpretations,
defense mechanisms and sexuality.
Psychoanalytic Theory. (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences, 6(2nd), , 576-578.
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